Articles | Volume 24, issue 8
https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-2757-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-2757-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
How hard do avalanche practitioners tap during snow stability tests?
Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate, Oslo, Norway
Center for Avalanche Research and Education, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
Samuel V. Verplanck
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
Markus Landrø
Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate, Oslo, Norway
Center for Avalanche Research and Education, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
Related authors
Håvard B. Toft, John Sykes, Andrew Schauer, Jordy Hendrikx, and Audun Hetland
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 1779–1793, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-1779-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-1779-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Manual Avalanche Terrain Exposure Scale (ATES) mapping is time-consuming and inefficient for large-scale applications. The updated algorithm for automated ATES mapping overcomes previous limitations by including forest density data, improving the avalanche runout estimations in low-angle runout zones, accounting for overhead exposure and open-source software. Results show that the latest version has significantly improved its performance.
John Sykes, Håvard Toft, Pascal Haegeli, and Grant Statham
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 947–971, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-947-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-947-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The research validates and optimizes an automated approach for creating classified snow avalanche terrain maps using open-source geospatial modeling tools. Validation is based on avalanche-expert-based maps for two study areas. Our results show that automated maps have an overall accuracy equivalent to the average accuracy of three human maps. Automated mapping requires a fraction of the time and cost of traditional methods and opens the door for large-scale mapping of mountainous terrain.
Mary Kate Connelly, Philipp Laurens Rosendahl, Valentin Adam, and Samuel V. Verplanck
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-4761, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-4761, 2026
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences (NHESS).
Short summary
Short summary
Avalanche models need snow properties that field teams rarely measure directly. We created a flexible framework that combines snowpit observations with published methods, tracks uncertainty, and shows where calculations fail. Applied to 14,776 snow slabs, simple weight estimates worked for up to 37%, but richer estimates including snow stiffness worked for only 4.6%. Stiffness estimates also varied widely, showing that missing observations and method choice strongly affect avalanche predictions.
Håvard B. Toft, John Sykes, Andrew Schauer, Jordy Hendrikx, and Audun Hetland
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 1779–1793, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-1779-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-1779-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Manual Avalanche Terrain Exposure Scale (ATES) mapping is time-consuming and inefficient for large-scale applications. The updated algorithm for automated ATES mapping overcomes previous limitations by including forest density data, improving the avalanche runout estimations in low-angle runout zones, accounting for overhead exposure and open-source software. Results show that the latest version has significantly improved its performance.
John Sykes, Håvard Toft, Pascal Haegeli, and Grant Statham
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 947–971, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-947-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-947-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The research validates and optimizes an automated approach for creating classified snow avalanche terrain maps using open-source geospatial modeling tools. Validation is based on avalanche-expert-based maps for two study areas. Our results show that automated maps have an overall accuracy equivalent to the average accuracy of three human maps. Automated mapping requires a fraction of the time and cost of traditional methods and opens the door for large-scale mapping of mountainous terrain.
Cited articles
American Avalanche Association: Snow, Weather and Avalanches: Observation Guidelines for Avalanche Programs in the United States, 4th edn., edited by: Greene, E., Birkeland, K., Elder, K., McCammon, I., Staples, M., Sharaf, D., Trautman, S., and Wagner, W., American Avalanche Association, Denver, Colorado, 1–111, https://www.americanavalancheassociation.org/swag (last access: 15 May 2024), 2022.
Benedetti, L., Gaume, J., and Fischer, J.-T.: A mechanically-based model of snow slab and weak layer fracture in the Propagation Saw Test, Int. J. Solids Struct., 158, 1–20, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2017.12.033, 2019.
Birkeland, K. W. and Johnson, R. F.: The stuffblock snow stability test: comparability with the rutschblock, usefulness in different snow climates, and repeatability between observers, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 30, 115–123, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-232X(99)00015-4, 1999.
Birkeland, K. W. and Simenhois, R.: The Extended Column Test: Test Effectiveness, Spatial Variability, and Comparison with the Propagation Saw Test, in: International Snow Science Workshop, 26 September 2008, Whistler, British Colombia, 867–874, http://arc.lib.montana.edu/snow-science/item/62 (last access: 15 August 2024), 2008.
Birkeland, K. W., van Herwijnen, A., Techel, F., Bair, E. H., Reuter, B., Simenhois, R., Jamieson, B., Marienthal, A., Chabot, D., and Schweizer, J.: Comparing stability tests and understanding their limitations, in: Proceedings of the 2023 International Snow Science Workshop, Bend, OR, http://arc.lib.montana.edu/snow-science/item/2855 (last access: 15 August 2024), 2023.
Canadian Avalanche Association: Observation guidelines and recording standards for weather, snowpack and avalanches, 6th edn., edited by: Campbell, C., McClung, D., Jamieson, B., Sayer, B., Whelan, R., Floyer, J., and Garvin, S., Canadian Avalanche Association, Revelstoke, 1–93, https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.avalancheassociation.ca/resource/resmgr/standards_docs/OGRS2016web.pdf (last access: 15 May 2024), 2016.
Clarkson, P.: Compression test, Avalanche News 40, 9–9, 1993.
Dürr, L. and Darms, G.: SLF-Beobachterhandbuch (Observation guidelines), WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF, Davos, https://www.slf.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/WSL/Publikationen/Sonderformate/pdf/SLF-Beobachterhandbuch.pdf (last access: 15 August 2024), 2016.
Fisher, R. A.: Statistical methods for research workers. Breakthroughs in statistics: Methodology and distribution, Oliver and Boyd, 66–70, ISBN 9780050021705, 1970.
Föhn, P.: The rutschblock as a practical tool for slope stability evaluation, IAHS Publ., 162, 223–228, 1987.
Gauthier, D. and Jamieson, B.: Fracture propagation propensity in relation to snow slab avalanche release: Validating the Propagation Saw Test, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, 2–5, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL034245, 2008.
Gauthier, D. and Jamieson, J. B.: Evaluating a prototype field test for weak layer fracture and failure propagation, in: International Snow Science Workshop, Telluride, Colorado, 107–116, http://arc.lib.montana.edu/snow-science/item/910 (last access: 15 August 2024), 2006.
Griesser, S., Pielmeier, C., Boutera Toft, H., and Reiweger, I.: Stress measurements in the weak layer during snow stability tests, Ann. Glaciol., 1–7, https://doi.org/10.1017/aog.2023.49, 2023.
Harris, C. R., Millman, K. J., van der Walt, S. J., Gommers, R., Virtanen, P., Cournapeau, D., Wieser, E., Taylor, J., Berg, S., Smith, N. J., Kern, R., Picus, M., Hoyer, S., van Kerkwijk, M. H., Brett, M., Haldane, A., del Río, J. F., Wiebe, M., Peterson, P., Gérard-Marchant, P., Sheppard, K., Reddy, T., Weckesser, W., Abbasi, H., Gohlke, C., and Oliphant, T. E.: Array programming with NumPy, Nature, 585, 357–362, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2649-2, 2020.
Heierli, J., Gumbsch, P., and Zaiser, M.: Anticrack nucleation as triggering mechanism for snow slab avalanches, Science, 321, 240–243, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1153948, 2008.
Hendrikx, J. and Birkeland, K.: Slope Scale Spatial Variability Across Time and Space: Comparison of Results from Two Different Snow Climates, in: International Snow Science Workshop, 23 September 2008, Whistler, British Colombia, 155–162, http://arc.lib.montana.edu/snow-science/item/25 (last access: 15 August 2024), 2008.
Hetland, A. and Mannberg, A.: CARE panel, https://uit.no/research/carepanel (last access: 4 December 2023), 2023.
Hibbeler, R. C.: Dynamics, in 12th Edn., Pearson, Prentice Hall, ISBN 9780136077916, 2010.
Jamieson, B. and Johnston, C.: The Compression Test for Snow Stability, in: International Snow Science Workshop, Banff, Alberta, 118–125, http://arc.lib.montana.edu/snow-science/item/1420 (last access: 15 August 2024), 1996.
Johnson, J. B., Solie, D. J., Brown, Joseph. A., and Gaffney, E. S.: Shock response of snow, J. Appl. Phys., 73, 4852–4861, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.353801, 1993.
Johnson, R. and Birkeland, K.: Effectively using and interpreting stability tests, in: Proceedings International Snow Science Workshop, 27 September–1 October 1998, Sunriver, Oregon, USA, 562–565, http://arc.lib.montana.edu/snow-science/item/1546 (last access: 15 August 2024), 1998.
Kellermann, W.: Erfahrungen mit der Norwegermethode und deren Vergleich mit dem Rutschblock/Keil, in: Vortrag beim Zentralen Kaderkurs Lawinen des SAC, Swiss Mountain Club headquarter, 1990.
LaChapelle, E. R.: The Fundamental Processes in Conventional Alavalanche Forecasting, J. Glaciol., 26, 75–84, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000010601, 1980.
Laerdal: CPRmeter 2 User Guide, Laerdal, 1–37, https://cdn.laerdal.com/downloads/f6537/cprmeter_2_user_guide_en (last access: 15 May 2024), 2023.
Langtangen, H. P. and Linge, S.: Finite Difference Computing with PDEs, Springer International Publishing, Cham, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55456-3, 2017.
Logan, S.: Are You a Hard Hitter? Systematic Measurement Error in the Compression Test, in: Proceedings of the 2006 International Snow Science Workshop, Telluride, Colorado, http://arc.lib.montana.edu/snow-science/item/1001 (last access: 15 August 2024), 2006.
McClung, D.: Shear fracture precipitated by strain softening as a mechanism of dry slab avalanche release, J. Geophys. Res.-Sol. Ea., 84, 3519–3526, 1979.
McClung, D. and Schaerer, P.: The Avalanche Handbook, The Mountaineers Books, 1–342, ISBN 9780898868098, 2006.
McClung, D. M. and Borstad, C. P.: Deformation and energy of dry snow slabs prior to fracture propagation, J. Glaciol., 58, 553–564, https://doi.org/10.3189/2012JoG11J009, 2012.
Moner, I., Gavaldà, J., Bacardit, M., Garcia, C., and Martí, G.: Application of Field Stability Evaluation Methods to the Snow Conditions of the Eastern Pyrenees, in: International Snow Science Proceedings, 26 September 2008, Whistler, British Colombia, 386–392, http://arc.lib.montana.edu/snow-science/item/60 Date (last access: 15 August 2024),2008.
Napadensky, H.: Dynamic response of snow to high rates of loading, US Army Material Command, Cold Regions Research & Engineering Laboratory, 1–52, https://erdc-library.erdc.dren.mil/items/81b728f7-6c4a-4ef8-e053-411ac80adeb3 (last access: 15 May 2024), 1964.
Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate: Felthåndbok for Snø og Skredobservasjoner, 3rd Edn., edited by: Aasen, J., Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate, Oslo, 1–44, https://www.varsom.no/media/pxhjg21k/nve-feltha-ndbok_2022_digital.pdf (last access: 15 May 2024), 2022.
Perla, R. I. and LaChapelle, E. R.: A theory of snow slab failure, J. Geophys. Res., 75, 7619–7627, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC075i036p07619, 1970.
Reiweger, I., Gaume, J., and Schweizer, J.: A new mixed-mode failure criterion for weak snowpack layers, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 1427–1432, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014GL062780, 2015.
Reuter, B. and Schweizer, J.: Describing Snow Instability by Failure Initiation, Crack Propagation, and Slab Tensile Support, Geophys. Res. Lett., 45, 7019–7027, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL078069, 2018.
Schweizer, J. and Jamieson, J.: Snowpack tests for assessing snow-slope instability, Ann. Glaciol., 51, 187–194, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756410791386652, 2010.
Schweizer, J., Schneebeli, M., Fierz, C., and Föhn, P. M. B.: Snow mechanics and avalanche formation: field experiments on the dynamic response of the snow cover, Surv. Geophys., 16, 621–633, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00665743, 1995.
Sedon, M.: Evaluating Forces for Extended Column Tests and Compression Tests, Avalanche J., 127, 39–41, 2021.
Shapiro, L. H., Johnson, J. B., Sturm, M., and Blaisdell, G. L.: Snow mechanics - review of the state of knowledge and applications, in: CRREL Report 97-3, US Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, NH, https://doi.org/10.21236/ADA330695, 1997.
Simenhois, R. and Birkeland, K.: The Extended Column Test: A Field Test for Fracture Initiation and Propagation, in: International Snow Science Workshop, Telluride, Colorado, 79–85, http://arc.lib.montana.edu/snow-science/item/506 (last access: 15 August 2024), 2006.
Simenhois, R. and Birkeland, K. W.: The Extended Column Test: Test effectiveness, spatial variability, and comparison with the Propagation Saw Test, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 59, 210–216, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2009.04.001, 2009.
Simenhois, R., Chabot, D., Birkeland, K., and Greene, E.:Shear Quality or Fracture Character with an Extended Column Test – No Longer in SWAG or SnowPilot, https://www.mtavalanche.com/sites/default/files/2018-02/SQ or FC with an ECT_0.pdf (last access: 15 August 2024), 2018.
Surowiecki, J.: The wisdom of crowds, Anchor, 2005.
Techel, F., Winkler, K., Walcher, M., van Herwijnen, A., and Schweizer, J.: On snow stability interpretation of extended column test results, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 1941–1953, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-1941-2020, 2020.
Thumlert, S. and Jamieson, B.: Stress measurements from common snow slope stability tests, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 110, 38–46, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2014.11.005, 2015.
Toft, H. B., Verplanck, S. V., and Landrø, M.: Tap-o-meter data, Open Science Framework, OSF [data set], https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/BV5PM, 2023.
Tukey, J.: Exploratory data analysis, Pearson, 131–160, ISBN 10:0201076160, ISBN 13:978-0201076165, 1977.
van Herwijnen, A., Gaume, J., Bair, E. H., Reuter, B., Birkeland, K. W., and Schweizer, J.: Estimating the effective elastic modulus and specific fracture energy of snowpack layers from field experiments, J. Glaciol., 62, 997–1007, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2016.90, 2016.
van Herwijnen, A. and Birkeland, K. W.: Measurements of snow slab displacement in Extended Column Tests and comparison with Propagation Saw Tests, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 97, 97–103, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2013.07.002, 2014.
Verplanck, S. V. and Adams, E. E.: Dynamic models for impact-initiated stress waves through snow columns, J. Glaciol., https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2024.26, in press, 2024.
Wakahama, G. and Sato, A.: Propagation of a Plastic Wave in Snow, J. Glaciol., 19, 175–183, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000029269, 1977.
Weißgraeber, P. and Rosendahl, P. L.: A closed-form model for layered snow slabs, The Cryosphere, 17, 1475–1496, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1475-2023, 2023.
Winkler, K. and Schweizer, J.: Comparison of snow stability tests: Extended column test, rutschblock test and compression test, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 59, 217–226, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2009.05.003, 2009.
Short summary
This study investigates inconsistencies in impact force as part of extended column tests (ECTs). We measured force-time curves from 286 practitioners in Scandinavia, Central Europe, and North America. The results show a large variability in peak forces and loading rates across wrist, elbow, and shoulder taps, challenging the ECT's reliability.
This study investigates inconsistencies in impact force as part of extended column tests (ECTs)....
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint