Articles | Volume 21, issue 6
https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-1887-2021
© Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-1887-2021
© Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
17 Jun 2021
Research article |
| 17 Jun 2021
| 17 Jun 2021
Tsunami damage to ports: cataloguing damage to create fragility functions from the 2011 Tohoku event
Constance Ting Chua
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Asian School of the Environment, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore
Earth Observatory of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore
Adam D. Switzer
Asian School of the Environment, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore
Earth Observatory of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore
Anawat Suppasri
International Research Institute of Disaster Science, Tohoku
University, Sendai, Japan
Linlin Li
School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University,
Guangzhou, China
Kwanchai Pakoksung
International Research Institute of Disaster Science, Tohoku
University, Sendai, Japan
David Lallemant
Asian School of the Environment, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore
Earth Observatory of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore
Susanna F. Jenkins
Asian School of the Environment, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore
Earth Observatory of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore
Ingrid Charvet
Formerly Department of Statistical Science, University College
London, London, United Kingdom
Terence Chua
Asian School of the Environment, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore
Amanda Cheong
JBA Risk Management Pte Ltd, Singapore
Nigel Winspear
Formerly SCOR Global P & C, Singapore
Related authors
No articles found.
Elinor S. Meredith, Rui Xue Natalie Teng, Susanna F. Jenkins, Josh L. Hayes, Sébastien Biass, and Heather Handley
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 2731–2749, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-2731-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-2731-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Cities near volcanoes expose populations to hazards. We ranked 1106 cities by population exposed to volcanoes within < 100 km, nearest distance, and number of nearby volcanoes. Bandung ranks highest, with ~8 M exposed within < 30 km of 12 volcanoes. Jakarta leads populations exposed within <100 km (~38 M). Central America has the highest proportion of city exposure, with San Salvador near 23 volcanoes. We provide a global city exposure perspective, identifying areas for localized mitigation.
Rónadh Cox, Mary C. Bourke, Max Engel, Andrew B. Kennedy, Annie Lau, Serge Suanez, Sarah J. Boulton, Maria Alexandra Oliveira, Raphaël Paris, Dimitra Salmanidou, Michaela Spiske, Wayne Stephenson, Storm Roberts, Adam D. Switzer, Nadia Mhammdi, Niamh D. Cullen, and Masashi Watanabe
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1913, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1913, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Coastal boulder deposits record extreme wave events, both storm and tsunami. Fully understanding hazards as recorded in these deposits requires high-quality data for comparison among sites and over time. We analysed methodologies and constructed a comprehensive set of field measurements to improve data consistency and reproducibility. We aim to help geomorphologists produce of data that can be widely shared and used to build extensive analytic understanding of coastal boulder deposits.
Eleanor Tennant, Susanna F. Jenkins, Victoria Miller, Richard Robertson, Bihan Wen, Sang-Ho Yun, and Benoit Taisne
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 4585–4608, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-4585-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-4585-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
After a volcanic eruption, assessing building damage quickly is important for responding to and recovering from the disaster. Traditional damage assessment methods such as ground surveys can be time-consuming and resource-intensive, hindering rapid response and recovery efforts. To overcome this, we have developed an automated approach for tephra fall building damage assessment. Our approach uses drone-acquired optical images and deep learning to rapidly generate building damage data.
Zhi Yang Koh, Benjamin S. Grandey, Dhrubajyoti Samanta, Adam D. Switzer, Benjamin P. Horton, Justin Dauwels, and Lock Yue Chew
Ocean Sci., 20, 1495–1511, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-20-1495-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-20-1495-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Identifying tide–surge interaction (TSI) is a complex task. We enhance existing statistical methods with a more-robust test that accounts for complex tides. We also develop a semi-empirical model to investigate the influence of one mechanism of TSI, tidal-phase alteration. We apply these techniques to tide-gauge records from Singapore and the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia. We find TSI at all studied locations: tidal-phase alteration can change the timing of large surges.
Jun Yu Puah, Ivan D. Haigh, David Lallemant, Kyle Morgan, Dongju Peng, Masashi Watanabe, and Adam D. Switzer
Ocean Sci., 20, 1229–1246, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-20-1229-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-20-1229-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Coastal currents have wide implications for port activities, transport of sediments, and coral reef ecosystems; thus a deeper understanding of their characteristics is needed. We collected data on current velocities for a year using current meters at shallow waters in Singapore. The strength of the currents is primarily affected by tides and winds and generally increases during the monsoon seasons across various frequencies.
Andrea Verolino, Su Fen Wee, Susanna F. Jenkins, Fidel Costa, and Adam D. Switzer
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 1203–1222, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-1203-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-1203-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Submarine volcanic eruptions represent the majority of eruptions taking place on Earth. Still, they are vastly understudied worldwide. Here we compile a new dataset and assess the morphology, depth, and height of submarine volcanoes in Southeast Asia and its surroundings to understand their hazard-exposure potential in the region. This study will serve as a stepping stone for future quantitative hazard assessments from submarine eruptions in Southeast Asia and neighbouring countries.
Kenta Tozato, Shuji Moriguchi, Shinsuke Takase, Yu Otake, Michael R. Motley, Anawat Suppasri, and Kenjiro Terada
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1891–1909, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-1891-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-1891-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents a framework that efficiently investigates the optimal placement of facilities probabilistically based on advanced numerical simulation. Surrogate models for the numerical simulation are constructed using a mode decomposition technique. Monte Carlo simulations using the surrogate models are performed to evaluate failure probabilities. Using the results of the Monte Carlo simulations and the genetic algorithm, optimal placements can be investigated probabilistically.
Mariano Balbi and David Charles Bonaventure Lallemant
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 27, 1089–1108, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-1089-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-1089-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We proposed a methodology to obtain useful and robust probabilistic predictions from computational flood simulators using satellite-borne flood extent observations. We developed a Bayesian framework to obtain the uncertainty in roughness parameters, in observations errors, and in simulator structural deficiencies. We found that it can yield improvements in predictions relative to current methodologies and can potentially lead to consistent ways of combining data from different sources.
Gui Hu, Linlin Li, Zhiyuan Ren, and Kan Zhang
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 675–691, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-675-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-675-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We explore the tsunamigenic mechanisms and the hydrodynamic characteristics of the 2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai volcanic tsunami event. Through extensive analysis of tsunami waveforms, we identify four distinct tsunami components from different physical mechanisms. The long-lasting oscillation of the tsunami event in the Pacific Ocean was mainly associated with the interplay of the ocean waves left by atmospheric waves with local bathymetry.
An-Chi Cheng, Anawat Suppasri, Kwanchai Pakoksung, and Fumihiko Imamura
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 447–479, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-447-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-447-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Consecutive earthquakes occurred offshore of southern Taiwan on 26 December 2006. This event revealed unusual tsunami generation and propagation, as well as unexpected consequences for the southern Taiwanese coast (i.e., amplified waves and prolonged durations). This study aims to elucidate the source characteristics of the 2006 tsunami and the important behaviors responsible for tsunami hazards in Taiwan such as wave trapping and shelf resonance.
Sébastien Biass, Susanna F. Jenkins, William H. Aeberhard, Pierre Delmelle, and Thomas Wilson
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 2829–2855, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-2829-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-2829-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We present a methodology that combines big Earth observation data and interpretable machine learning to revisit the impact of past volcanic eruptions recorded in archives of multispectral satellite imagery. Using Google Earth Engine and dedicated numerical modelling, we revisit and constrain processes controlling vegetation vulnerability to tephra fallout following the 2011 eruption of Cordón Caulle volcano, illustrating how this approach can inform the development of risk-reduction policies.
Raquel P. Felix, Judith A. Hubbard, Kyle E. Bradley, Karen H. Lythgoe, Linlin Li, and Adam D. Switzer
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 1665–1682, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-1665-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-1665-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The Flores Thrust lies along the north coasts of Bali and Lombok. We model how an earthquake on this fault could trigger a tsunami that would impact the regional capital cities of Mataram and Denpasar. We show that for 3–5 m of slip on the fault (a Mw 7.5–7.9+ earthquake), the cities would experience a wave ca. 1.6–2.7 and ca. 0.6–1.4 m high, arriving in < 9 and ca. 23–27 min, respectively. They would also experience subsidence of 20–40 cm, resulting in long-term exposure to coastal hazards.
Susanna F. Jenkins, Sébastien Biass, George T. Williams, Josh L. Hayes, Eleanor Tennant, Qingyuan Yang, Vanesa Burgos, Elinor S. Meredith, Geoffrey A. Lerner, Magfira Syarifuddin, and Andrea Verolino
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 1233–1265, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-1233-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-1233-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
There is a need for large-scale comparable assessments of volcanic threat, but previous approaches assume circular hazard to exposed population. Our approach quantifies and ranks five exposure types to four volcanic hazards for 40 volcanoes in Southeast Asia. Java has the highest median exposure, with Merapi consistently ranking as the highest-threat volcano. This study and the tools developed provide a road map with the possibility to extend them to other regions and/or towards impact and loss.
Chatuphorn Somphong, Anawat Suppasri, Kwanchai Pakoksung, Tsuyoshi Nagasawa, Yuya Narita, Ryunosuke Tawatari, Shohei Iwai, Yukio Mabuchi, Saneiki Fujita, Shuji Moriguchi, Kenjiro Terada, Cipta Athanasius, and Fumihiko Imamura
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 891–907, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-891-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-891-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The majority of past research used hypothesized landslides to simulate tsunamis, but they were still unable to properly explain the observed data. In this study, submarine landslides were simulated by using a slope-failure-theory-based numerical model for the first time. The findings were verified with post-event field observational data. They indicated the potential presence of submarine landslide sources in the southern part of the bay and were consistent with the observational tsunamis.
Kai Wan Yuen, Adam D. Switzer, Paul P. S. Teng, and Janice Ser Huay Lee
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2022-4, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2022-4, 2022
Manuscript not accepted for further review
Short summary
Short summary
Few databases provide standardized reporting of disaster-related agricultural damage and loss. We compiled cyclone-induced rice damage data from 1970–2018 in four countries in Asia (Bangladesh, Myanmar, Philippines and Vietnam). Of the 1,046 cyclone events recorded, 13 % or 138 events were associated with rice damage. Philippines and Vietnam accounted for 128 of these events. While higher cyclone intensity tend to cause most damage, lower intensity events were more frequent.
Dominik Jackisch, Bi Xuan Yeo, Adam D. Switzer, Shaoneng He, Danica Linda M. Cantarero, Fernando P. Siringan, and Nathalie F. Goodkin
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 213–226, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-213-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-213-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The Philippines is a nation very vulnerable to devastating typhoons. We investigate if stable isotopes of precipitation can be used to detect typhoon activities in the Philippines based on daily isotope measurements from Metropolitan Manila. We find that strong typhoons such as Rammasun, which occurred in July 2014, leave detectable isotopic signals in precipitation. Besides other factors, the distance of the typhoon to the sampling site plays a key role in influencing the signal.
Elisa Lahcene, Ioanna Ioannou, Anawat Suppasri, Kwanchai Pakoksung, Ryan Paulik, Syamsidik Syamsidik, Frederic Bouchette, and Fumihiko Imamura
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 2313–2344, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-2313-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-2313-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
In Indonesia, tsunamis represent a significant risk to coastal communities and buildings. Therefore, it is fundamental to deeply understand the tsunami source impact on buildings and infrastructure. This work provides a novel understanding of the relationship between wave period, ground shaking, liquefaction events, and potential building damage using tsunami fragility curves. This study represents the first investigation of colossal impacts increasing building damage.
Kai Wan Yuen, Tang Thi Hanh, Vu Duong Quynh, Adam D. Switzer, Paul Teng, and Janice Ser Huay Lee
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 1473–1493, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-1473-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-1473-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We used flow diagrams to represent the ways in which anthropogenic land use and natural hazards have affected rice production in the two
mega-deltas of Vietnam. Anthropogenic developments meant to improve productivity may create negative feedbacks on rice production and quality. Natural hazards further amplify problems created by human activities. A systems-thinking approach can yield nuanced perspectives for tackling environmental challenges.
Ryota Masaya, Anawat Suppasri, Kei Yamashita, Fumihiko Imamura, Chris Gouramanis, and Natt Leelawat
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 2823–2841, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-2823-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-2823-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
This study examines the sediment transport during the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami event on Phra Thong Island, Thailand. We use numerical simulations and sediment transportation models, and our modelling approach confirms that the beaches were significantly eroded predominantly during the first backwash phase. Although 2004 tsunami deposits are found on the island, we demonstrate that most of the sediment was deposited in the shallow coastal area, facilitating quick recovery of the beach.
Cited articles
AIR Worldwide: AIR Construction and Occupancy Class Code, available at:
https://docs.air-worldwide.com/Validation/5.0/.htm#Exposure_Data/Industrial_Facility_Occupancies.htm
(last access: 5 April 2021), 2019.
Akiyama, M., Frangopol, D. M., Arai, M., and Koshimura, S.: Reliability of
bridges under tsunami hazards: Emphasis on the 2011 Tohoku-oki earthquake,
Earthq. Spectra, 29, 295–314, https://doi.org/10.1193/1.4000112, 2013.
Ananth, C. V. and Kleinbaum, D. G.: Regression models for ordinal responses:
a review of methods and applications, Int. J. Epidemiol., 26, 1323–1333, https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/26.6.1323, 1997.
Attary, N., Van De Lindt, J. W., Barbosa, A. R., Cox, D. T., and Unnikrishnan, V. U.: Performance-based tsunami engineering for risk
assessment of structures subjected to multi-hazards: tsunami following
earthquake, J. Earthq. Eng., 7, 1–20, https://doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2019.1616335, 2019.
Benazir, Syamsidik, and Luthfi, M.: Assessment on Damages of Harbor Complexes
Due to Impacts of the 2018 Palu-Donggala Tsunami, Indonesia, in: International Conference on Asian and Pacific Coasts, edited by: Nguyen, T.
V., Dou, X., and Tran, T. T., Springer, Singapore, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-0291-0_36, 2019.
Building Centre of Japan: Introduction to Building Standard Law: Building
Regulation in Japan, available at: https://www.bcj.or.jp/upload/international/baseline/BSLIntroduction201307_e.pdf (last access: 15 October 2020), 2013.
Charvet, I., Ioannou, I., Rossetto, T., Suppasri, A., and Imamura, F.:
Empirical fragility assessment of buildings affected by the 2011 Great East
Japan tsunami using improved statistical models, Nat. Hazards, 73, 951–973, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-014-1118-3, 2014.
Charvet, I., Suppasri, A., Kimura, H., Sugawara, D., and Imamura, F.: A
multivariate generalized linear tsunami fragility model for Kesennuma City
based on maximum flow depths, velocities and debris impact, with evaluation
of predictive accuracy, Nat. Hazards, 79, 2073–2099, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-015-1947-8, 2015.
Charvet, I., Macabuag, J., and Rossetto, T.: Estimating tsunami-induced
building damage through fragility functions: critical review and research
needs, Front. Built Environ. 3, 36, https://doi.org/10.3389/fbuil.2017.00036, 2017.
Chen, C., Melville, B. W., Nandasena, N. A. K., Shamseldin, A. Y., and
Wotherspoon, L.: Experimental study of uplift loads due to tsunami bore impact on a wharf model, Coast. Eng., 117, 126–137, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coastaleng.2016.08.001, 2016.
Chua, C. T., Switzer, A. D., Suppasri, A., Li, L., Pakoksung, K., Lallemant, D., Jenkins, S., Charvet, I., Chua, T., Cheong, A., and Winspear, N.: Tsunami damage to ports: Cataloguing damage to create fragility functions from the 2011 Tohoku event, DR-NTU (Data), V3, https://doi.org/10.21979/N9/OTZMT1, 2020.
Cruz, E. F. and Valdivia, D.: Performance of industrial facilities in the
Chilean earthquake of 27 February 2010, Struct. Design Tall Special Build., 20, 83–101, https://doi.org/10.1002/tal.679, 2011.
De Risi, R., Goda, K., Mori, N., and Yasuda, T.: Bayesian tsunami fragility
modeling considering input data uncertainty, Stoch. Environ. Res. Risk A., 31, 1253–1269, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-016-1230-x, 2017.
ESPO – European Sea Ports Organisation: Trends in EU Ports Governance 2016, available at:
https://www.espo.be/media/Trends_in_EU_ports_governance_2016_FINAL_VERSION.pdf (last access: 23 October 2020), 2016.
Fraser, S., Raby, A., Pomonis, A., Goda, K., Chian, S. C., Macabuag, J.,
Offord, M., Saito, K., and Sammonds, P.: Tsunami damage to coastal defences
and buildings in the March 11th 2011 Mw 9.0 Great East Japan earthquake and tsunami, Bull. Earthq. Eng., 11, 205–239, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-012-9348-9, 2013.
Geospatial Information Authority of Japan: Aerial photograph of the affected
area, available at: https://www.gsi.go.jp/BOUSAI/h23_tohoku.html (last access: 23 October 2020), 2012a.
Geospatial Information Authority of Japan: Oblique photograph of the
affected area, available at: https://www.gsi.go.jp/BOUSAI/h23_tohoku.html (last access: 23 October 2020), 2012b.
Geospatial Information Authority of Japan: Map/Aerial Photo Browsing
Service, avaiable at: http://mapps.gsi.go.jp/maplibSearch.do#1 (last
access: 23 October 2020), 2013.
Gokon, H., Koshimura, S., Imai, K., Matsuoka, M., Namegaya, Y., and Nishimura, Y.: Developing fragility functions for the areas affected by the 2009 Samoa earthquake and tsunami, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 14, 3231–3241, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-14-3231-2014, 2014.
Guisan, A. and Harrell, F. E.: Ordinal response regression models in ecology, J. Veg. Sci., 11, 617–626, https://doi.org/10.2307/3236568, 2000.
Hazarika, H., Kasama, K., Suetsugu, D., Kataoka, S., and Yasufuku, N.:
Damage to geotechnical structures in waterfront areas of northern Tohoku due
to the March 11, 2011 tsunami disaster, Indian Geotech. J., 43, 137–152, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40098-012-0021-7, 2013.
Huang, J. and Chen, G.: Experimental modeling of wave load on a pile-supported wharf with pile breakwater, Ocean Eng., 201, 107149,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2020.107149, 2020.
Imai, K., Inazumi, T., Emoto, K., Horie, T., Suzuki, A., Kudo, K., Ogawa,
M., Noji, M., Mizuto, K., and Sasaki, T.: Tsunami Vulnerability Criteria for
Fishery Port Facilities in Japan, Geosciences, 9, 410, https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9100410, 2019.
Janssen, H.: Study on the post-tsunami rehabilitation of fishing communities
and fisheries-based livelihoods in Indonesia, International Collective in
Support of Fishworkers, Banda Aceh/Jakarta, December 2005.
Japan Maritime Centre: The impact of the Great East Japan earthquake on the
volume of seaborne cargo movement, available at:
http://www.jpmac.or.jp/information/pdf/202_2.pdf (last access: 20 September 2020), 2011.
Karafagka, S., Fotopoulou, S., and Pitilakis, K.: Analytical tsunami fragility curves for seaport RC buildings and steel light frame warehouses,
Soil Dynam. Earthq. Eng., 112, 118–137, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.04.037, 2018.
Kazama, M. and Noda, T.: Damage statistics (Summary of the 2011 off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake damage), Soils Found., 52, 780–792, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2012.11.003, 2012.
Kihara, N., Niida, Y., Takabatake, D., Kaida, H., Shibayama, A., and Miyagawa, Y.: Large-scale experiments on tsunami-induced pressure on a vertical tide wall, Coast. Eng., 99, 46–63, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coastaleng.2015.02.009, 2015.
Koshimura, S., Namegaya, Y., and Yanagisawa, H.: Tsunami fragility: A new
measure to identify tsunami damage, J. Disast. Res., 4, 479–488, https://doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2009.p0479, 2009.
Krausmann, E. and Cruz, A. M.: Impact of the 11 March 2011, Great East Japan
earthquake and tsunami on the chemical industry, Nat. Hazards, 67, 811–828, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-013-0607-0, 2013.
Kumagai, K.: Tsunami-induced Debris of Freight Containers due to the 2011 off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake, JSCE Disaster Reports, Japan Society of Civil Engineers, 1–25, available at: https://committees.jsce.or.jp/disaster/system/files/FS2013-T-0003.pdf (last access: 12 June 2021), 2013.
Lallemant, D., Kiremidjian, A., and Burton, H.: Statistical procedures for
developing earthquake damage fragility curves, Earthq. Eng. Struct. Dynam., 44, 1373–1389, https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.2522, 2015.
Lam, J. S. L. and Lassa, J. A.: Risk assessment framework for exposure of
cargo and ports to natural hazards and climate extremes, Mar. Policy Manage., 44, 1–15, https://doi.org/10.1080/03088839.2016.1245877, 2017.
Leelawat, N., Suppasri, A., Charvet, I., and Imamura, F.: Building damage
from the 2011 Great East Japan tsunami: quantitative assessment of influential factors, Nat. Hazards, 73, 449–471, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-014-1081-z, 2014.
Leelawat, N., Suppasri, A., Murao, O., and Imamura, F.: A study on the
influential factors on building damage in Sri Lanka during the 2004 Indian
Ocean tsunami, J. Earthq. Tsunami, 10, 1640001, https://doi.org/10.1142/S1793431116400017, 2016.
Leone, F., Lavigne, F., Paris, R., Denain, J. C., and Vinet, F.: A spatial
analysis of the December 26th, 2004 tsunami-induced damages: Lessons learned
for a better risk assessment integrating buildings vulnerability, Appl. Geogr., 31, 363–375, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2010.07.009, 2011.
Li, L., Switzer, A. D., Wang, Y., Chan, C. H., Qiu, Q., and Weiss, R.: A
modest 0.5-m rise in sea level will double the tsunami hazard in Macau, Sci. Adv., 4, eaat1180, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aat1180, 2018.
Macabuag, J., Rossetto, T., Ioannou, I., Suppasri, A., Sugawara, D., Adriano, B., Imamura, F., Eames, I., and Koshimura, S.: A proposed methodology for deriving tsunami fragility functions for buildings using optimum intensity measures, Nat. Hazards, 84, 1257–1285, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-016-2485-8, 2016.
Macabuag, J., Rossetto, T., Ioannou, I., and Eames, I.: Investigation of the effect of debris-induced damage for constructing tsunami fragility curves for buildings, Geosciences, 8, 117, https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences8040117, 2018.
Maheshwari, B. K., Sharma, M. L., and Narayan, J. P.: Structural damages on
the coast of Tamil Nadu due to tsunami caused by December 26, 2004 Sumatra
earthquake, ISET J. Earthq. Technol., 42, 63–78, 2005.
Mas, E., Koshimura, S., Suppasri, A., Matsuoka, M., Matsuyama, M., Yoshii, T., Jimenez, C., Yamazaki, F., and Imamura, F.: Developing Tsunami fragility curves using remote sensing and survey data of the 2010 Chilean Tsunami in Dichato, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 12, 2689–2697, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-12-2689-2012, 2012.
Meneses, J. and Arduino, P.: Preliminary observations of the effects of ground failure and tsunami on the major ports of Ibaraki prefecture, GEER
Assoc. Rep. No. GEER-025c, Geotechnical Extreme Events Reconnaissance, Tohoku, Japan, available at: http://learningfromearthquakes.org/2011-03-11-tohoku-japan/images/2011_03_11_tohoku_japan/pdfs/QR3_Preliminary_Observations_Major_Ports_Ibaraki_Prefecture_05-17-11.pdf (last access: 12 June 2021), 2011.
MLIT – Ministry of Land Infrastructure and Transportation: Investigation of
the impact on business activities due to the suspension of port functions in
the Great East Japan Earthquake: Questionnaire survey results, available at:
http://www.thr.mlit.go.jp/bumon/kisya/kisyah/images/38985_1.pdf (last access: 15 September 2020), 2011.
MLIT – Ministry of Land Infrastructure and Transportation: Survey of tsunami
damage condition, available at:
http://www.mlit.go.jp/toshi/toshi-hukkou-arkaibu.html (last access: 23 October 2020), 2014.
Muhari, A., Charvet, I., Tsuyoshi, F., Suppasri, A., and Imamura, F.: Assessment of tsunami hazards in ports and their impact on marine vessels
derived from tsunami models and the observed damage data, Nat. Hazards, 78, 1309–1328, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-015-1772-0, 2015.
Naito, C., Cercone, C., Riggs, H. R., and Cox, D.: Procedure for site assessment of the potential for tsunami debris impact, J. Waterway Port Coast. Ocean Eng., 140, 223–232, 2014.
Nayak, S., Reddy, M. H. O., Madhavi, R., and Dutta, S. C.: Assessing tsunami
vulnerability of structures designed for seismic loading, Int. J. Disast. Risk Reduct., 7, 28–38, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2013.12.001, 2014.
Nistor, I., Palermo, D., Nouri, Y., Murty, T., and Saatcioglu, M.:
Tsunami-induced forces on structures, in: Handbook of coastal and ocean
engineering, edited by: Kim, C. Y., World Scientific, Singapore, 261–286,
https://doi.org/10.1142/9789812819307_0011, 2010.
Okazaki, T., Lignos, D. G., Midorikawa, M., Ricles, J. M., and Love, J.: Damage to steel buildings observed after the 2011 Tohoku-Oki earthquake,
Earthq. Spectra, 29, 219–243, https://doi.org/10.1193/1.4000124, 2013.
Otake, T., Suppasri, A., and Imamura, F.: Investigations on global tsunami
risk considering port network, JSCE Proceedings B2 (Coastal Engineering), 75, 1884–2399, https://doi.org/10.2208/kaigan.75.I_1321, 2019.
Ozawa, S., Nishimura, T., Suito, H., Kobayashi, T., Tobita, M., and Imakiire,
T.: Coseismic and postseismic slip of the 2011 magnitude-9 Tohoku-Oki
earthquake, Nature, 475, 373–376, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10227, 2011.
Park, H., Cox, D. T., and Barbosa, A. R.: Comparison of inundation depth and
momentum flux based fragilities for probabilistic tsunami damage assessment
and uncertainty analysis, Coast. Eng., 122, 10–26, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coastaleng.2017.01.008, 2017.
Paulik, R., Gusman, A., Williams, J. H., Pratama, G. M., Lin, S. L.,
Prawirabhakti, A., Sulendra, K., Zachari, M. Y., Fortuna, Z. E. D., Layuk, N. B. P., and Suwarni, N. W. I.: Tsunami hazard and built environment damage
observations from Palu City after the September 28 2018 Sulawesi earthquake
and tsunami, Pure Appl. Geophys., 176, 3305–3321, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-019-02254-9, 2019.
Percher, M., Bruin, W., Dickenson, S., and Eskijian, M.: Performance of port
and harbor structures impacted by the March 11, 2011 Great Tohoku Earthquake
and Tsunami, in: Ports 2013: Success Through Diversification, American Society of Civil Engineers, Seattle, Washington, 610–619,
https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784413067.063, 2013.
Pitilakis, K., Crowley, H., and Kaynia, A. M.: Introduction, in: SYNER-G:
Typology Definition and Fragility Functions for Physical Elements at Seismic
Risk, Springer, Dordrecht, 1–28, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7872-6, 2014.
R Core Team: R: A language and environment for statistical computing, R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria, available at:
https://www.R-project.org/ (last access: 12 June 2021), 2020.
Reese, S., Cousins, W. J., Power, W. L., Palmer, N. G., Tejakusuma, I. G., and Nugrahadi, S.: Tsunami Vulnerability of buildings and people in South Java – field observations after the July 2006 Java tsunami, Nat. Hazards and Earth Syst. Sci., 7, 573–589, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-7-573-2007, 2007.
Reese, S., Bradley, B. A., Bind, J., Smart, G., Power, W., and Sturman, J.:
Empirical building fragilities from observed damage in the 2009 South Pacific tsunami, Earth-Sci. Rev., 107, 156–173, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.01.009, 2011.
Rossetto, T., Ioannou, I., Grant, D. N., and Maqsood, T.: Guidelines for
empirical vulnerability assessment, in: GEM technical report, GEM Foundation, Pavia, 2014.
Scawthorn, C., Ono, Y., Iemura, H., Ridha, M., and Purwanto, B.: Performance
of lifelines in Banda Aceh, Indonesia, during the December 2004 Great Sumatra earthquake and tsunami, Earthq. Spectra, 22, 511–544, https://doi.org/10.1193/1.2206807, 2006.
Shoji, G. and Nakamura, T.: Damage assessment of road bridges subjected to
the 2011 Tohoku Pacific earthquake tsunami, J. Disast. Res., 12, 79–89, 2017.
Song, J., De Risi, R., and Goda, K.: Influence of flow velocity on tsunami loss estimation, Geosciences, 7, 114, https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences7040114, 2017.
Sugano, T., Nozu, A., Kohama, E., Shimosako, K. I., and Kikuchi, Y.: Damage to coastal structures, Soils Found., 54, 883–901, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2014.06.018, 2014.
Suppasri, A., Mas, E., Charvet, I., Gunasekera, R., Imai, K., Fukutani, Y.,
Abe, Y., and Imamura, F.: Building damage characteristics based on surveyed
data and fragility curves of the 2011 Great East Japan tsunami, Nat. Hazards, 66, 319–341, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-012-0487-8, 2013.
Suppasri, A., Charvet, I., Imai, K., and Imamura, F.: Fragility curves based
on data from the 2011 Tohoku-Oki Tsunami in Ishinomaki city, with discussion
of parameters influencing building damage, Earthq. Spectra, 31, 841–868,
https://doi.org/10.1193/053013EQS138M, 2015.
Suppasri, A., Pakoksung, K., Charvet, I., Chua, C. T., Takahashi, N.,
Ornthammarath, T., Latcharote, P., Leelawat, N., and Imamura, F.: Load-resistance analysis: an alternative approach to tsunami damage assessment applied to the 2011 Great East Japan tsunami, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 19, 1807–1822, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-19-1807-2019, 2019.
Takano, T.: Overview of the 2011 East Japan earthquake and tsunami disaster,
The 2011 East Japan Earthquake Bulletin of the Tohoku Geographical Association, available at: http://tohokugeo.jp/articles/e-contents7.pdf (last access: 11 June 2021), April 2011.
Tarbotton, C., Dall'Osso, F., Dominey-Howes, D., and Goff, J.: The use of
empirical vulnerability functions to assess the response of buildings to
tsunami impact: comparative review and summary of best practice, Earth-Sci. Rev., 142, 120–134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2015.01.002, 2015.
Technical Council on Lifeline Earthquake Engineering: Ports, in: Tohoku,
Japan, Earthquake and Tsunami of 2011: Lifeline Performance, edited by: Tang,
A. K., American Society of Civil Engineers, USA, 547–558, https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784479834.ch07, 2013.
Tsuji, Y., Satake, K., Ishibe, T., Harada, T., Nishiyama, A., and Kusumoto,
S.: Tsunami heights along the pacific coast of northern Honshu recorded from
the 2011 Tohoku and previous great earthquakes, Pure Appl. Geophys., 171, 3183–3215, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-014-0779-x, 2014.
TTJS – The 2011 Tohoku Earthquake Tsunami Joint Survey Group.: The 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku earthquake tsunami information – field survey results, Coastal Engineering Committee of the Japan Society of Civil Engineers, available at: https://coastal.jp/tsunami2011/ (last access: 12 June 2021), 2011.
United States Geological Survey: M 9.1 – 2011 Great Tohoku Earthquake,
Japan, available at:
https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/official20110311054624120_30/shakemap/intensity, last access: 16 October 2020.
Williams, J. H., Wilson, T. M., Horspool, N., Paulik, R., Wotherspoon, L.,
Lane, E. M., and Hughes, M. W.: Assessing transportation vulnerability to
tsunamis: Utilising post-event field data from the 2011 Tōhoku tsunami,
Japan, and the 2015 Illapel tsunami, Chile, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 451–470, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-451-2020, 2020.
Yung, Y. F. and Bentler, P. M.: Bootstrapping techniques in analysis of
mean and covariance structures, in: Advanced structural equation modeling:
Issues and techniques, Psychology Press, New York, 195–226, 1996.
Short summary
Port industries are extremely vulnerable to coastal hazards such as tsunamis. Despite their pivotal role in local and global economies, there has been little attention paid to tsunami impacts on port industries. For the first time, tsunami damage data are being extensively collected for port structures and catalogued into a database. The study also provides fragility curves which describe the probability of damage exceedance for different port industries given different tsunami intensities.
Port industries are extremely vulnerable to coastal hazards such as tsunamis. Despite their...
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint