Articles | Volume 26, issue 10
https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-26-5073-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-26-5073-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Review article
| 
16 Oct 2026
Review article |
| 16 Oct 2026
| 16 Oct 2026
Review article: Mountain flash floods: from hazard formation to disaster risk reduction pathways
Zhenghang Chen
Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, 315100 Ningbo, China
Key Laboratory of Land Surface Pattern and Simulation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing, 100101, China
Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, 315100 Ningbo, China
Matthew F. Johnson
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
School of Geography, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
Nigel Wright
School of Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
Ying Weng
School of Computer Science, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, 315100 Ningbo, China
Faith Ka Shun Chan
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, 315100 Ningbo, China
Water@Leeds Research Institute and School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
Feng Wu
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Key Laboratory of Land Surface Pattern and Simulation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing, 100101, China
Related authors
No articles found.
Ziqi Zhang, Qian Zhang, Shaokun Fu, Zhenghang Chen, Mengfei Zhang, Naliang Guo, Fubao Sun, and Feng Wu
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-4038, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-4038, 2026
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Hydrology and Earth System Sciences (HESS).
Short summary
Short summary
Flash floods can develop too quickly for traditional computer simulations. We built a fast learning model that keeps the original terrain layout and follows basic water-flow rules. It reproduced an unseen extreme storm well and ran in about one second, supporting faster warnings and scenario testing.
Erhu Du, Feng Wu, Hao Jiang, Naliang Guo, Yong Tian, and Chunmiao Zheng
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 27, 1607–1626, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-1607-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-1607-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This study develops an integrated socio-hydrological modeling framework that can simulate the entire flood management processes, including flood inundation, flood management policies, public responses, and evacuation activities. The model is able to holistically examine flood evacuation performance under the joint impacts of hydrological conditions, management policies (i.e., shelter location distribution), and human behaviors (i.e., evacuation preparation time and route-searching strategy).
Faith Ka Shun Chan, Liang Emlyn Yang, Gordon Mitchell, Nigel Wright, Mingfu Guan, Xiaohui Lu, Zilin Wang, Burrell Montz, and Olalekan Adekola
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 2567–2588, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-2567-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-2567-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Sustainable flood risk management (SFRM) has become popular since the 1980s. This study examines the past and present flood management experiences in four developed countries (UK, the Netherlands, USA, and Japan) that have frequently suffered floods. We analysed ways towards SFRM among Asian coastal cities, which are still reliant on a hard-engineering approach that is insufficient to reduce future flood risk. We recommend stakeholders adopt mixed options to undertake SFRM practices.
Kaihua Guo, Mingfu Guan, Haochen Yan, and Faith Ka Shun Chan
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2022-109, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2022-109, 2022
Revised manuscript not accepted
Short summary
Short summary
This study investigated the utility of social media in urban flood assessment using the case of 2020 China Chengdu flooding. We presented an efficient workflow to collect, process and identify unstructured flood related data in near real-time during a storm event. Based on identified social media database and 232 flood sites, this study shows that social media data can provide valuable spatial and timely information for urban flooding emergency management.
Cited articles
Abbasi, N. A., Xu, X., Lucas-Borja, M. E., Dang, W., and Liu, B.: The use of check dams in watershed management projects: Examples from around the world, Sci. Total Environ., 676, 683–691, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.249, 2019.
Abd-el-Kader, M. M., El-Feky, A. M., Saber, M., AlHarbi, M. M., Alataway, A., and Alfaisal, F. M.: Designating appropriate areas for flood mitigation and rainwater harvesting in arid region using a GIS-based multi-criteria decision analysis, Water Resour. Manag., 37, 1083–1108, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-022-03416-6, 2023.
Abdelal, Q., Al-Rawabdeh, A., Al Qudah, K., Hamarneh, C., and Abu-Jaber, N.: Hydrological assessment and management implications for the ancient Nabataean flood control system in Petra, Jordan, J. Hydrol., 601, 126583, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126583, 2021.
Abegaz, R., Wang, F., and Xu, J.: History, causes, and trend of floods in the US: a review, Nat. Hazards, 120, 13715–13755, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-024-06791-y, 2024.
Abuzied, S. M. and Mansour, B. M.: Geospatial hazard modeling for the delineation of flash flood-prone zones in Wadi Dahab basin, Egypt, J. Hydroinform., 21, 180–206, https://doi.org/10.2166/hydro.2018.043, 2019.
Acharjee, S.: Urban land use and geohazards in Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh, India: the need for geotechnical intervention and geoethical policies in urban disaster resilience programmes in a changing climate, Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ., 419, 63–68, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP419.15, 2015.
Acheampong, J. N., Gyamfi, C., and Arthur, E.: Impacts of retention basins on downstream flood peak attenuation in the Odaw river basin, Ghana, J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud., 47, 101364, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2023.101364, 2023.
Addisie, M. B. and Wassie, H. M.: Gully controlling practices associated with soil geotechnical properties in the subhumid Ethiopian highlands, J. Degrad. Min. Lands Manage., 8, 2719–2729, https://doi.org/10.15243/jdmlm.2021.083.2719, 2021.
Adhikari, T. R., Baniya, B., Tang, Q., Chen, D., Talchabhadel, R., Li, H., Shrestha, S., Sigdel, M., Budhathoki, B. R., Pradhanang, S. M., Pradhananga, D., and Awasthi, R. P.: Identification precipitation threshold and resulting river discharge: an IDF-based approach in the Central Himalaya, Nepal, Geogr. Ann. A, 105, 221–236, https://doi.org/10.1080/04353676.2024.2373575, 2023.
Adnan, M. S. G., Dewan, A., Zannat, K. E., and Abdullah, A. Y. M.: The use of watershed geomorphic data in flash flood susceptibility zoning: a case study of the Karnaphuli and Sangu river basins of Bangladesh, Nat. Hazards, 99, 425–448, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-019-03749-3, 2019.
Affek, A.: Wpływ gospodarki leśnej na terenach górskich na wybrane elementy środowiska–aktualny stan wiedzy (Impact of mountain forest management on selected elements of the environment–the current state of knowledge), Przegląd Geograficzny, 91, 63–81, https://doi.org/10.7163/przg.2019.1.3, 2019.
Aguilar, G., Cabré, A., Fredes, V., and Villela, B.: Erosion after an extreme storm event in an arid fluvial system of the southern Atacama Desert: an assessment of the magnitude, return time, and conditioning factors of erosion and debris flow generation, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 1247–1265, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-1247-2020, 2020.
Ahmed, B., Sammonds, P., Saville, N. M., Le Masson, V., Suri, K., Bhat, G. M., Hakhoo, N., Jolden, T., Hussain, G., Wangmo, K., and Thusu, B.: Indigenous mountain people's risk perception to environmental hazards in border conflict areas, Int. J. Disast. Risk Re., 35, 101063, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2019.01.002, 2019.
Akbar, M., Bhat, M. S., and Khan, A. A.: Multi-hazard susceptibility mapping for disaster risk reduction in Kargil-Ladakh Region of Trans-Himalayan India, Environ. Earth Sci., 82, 68, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-022-10729-7, 2023.
Al-mamari, M. M., Kantoush, S. A., Kobayashi, S., Sumi, T., and Saber, M.: Real-time measurement of flash-flood in a wadi area by LSPIV and STIV, Hydrology, 6, 27, https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology6010027, 2019.
Al-Rawas, G., Nikoo, M. R., and Al-Wardy, M.: A review on the prevention and control of flash flood hazards on a global scale: Early warning systems, vulnerability assessment, environmental, and public health burden, Int. J. Disast. Risk Re., 115, 105024, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2024.105024, 2024a.
Al-Rawas, G., Nikoo, M. R., Al-Wardy, M., and Etri, T.: A critical review of emerging technologies for flash flood prediction: examining artificial intelligence, machine learning, internet of things, cloud computing, and robotics techniques, Water-Sui, 16, 2069, https://doi.org/10.3390/w16142069, 2024b.
Alcântara, E., Marengo, J. A., Mantovani, J., Londe, L. R., San, R. L. Y., Park, E., Lin, Y. N., Wang, J., Mendes, T., Cunha, A. P., Pampuch, L., Seluchi, M., Simões, S., Cuartas, L. A., Goncalves, D., Massi, K., Alvalá, R., Moraes, O., Filho, C. S., Mendes, R., and Nobre, C.: Deadly disasters in southeastern South America: flash floods and landslides of February 2022 in Petrópolis, Rio de Janeiro, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1157–1175, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-1157-2023, 2023.
Alexander, J., Barclay, J., Susnik, J., Loughlin, S. C., Herd, R. A., Darnell, A., and Crosweller, S.: Sediment-charged flash floods on Montserrat: The influence of synchronous tephra fall and varying extent of vegetation damage, J. Volcanol. Geoth. Res., 194, 127–138, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2010.05.002, 2010.
Amponsah, W., Marra, F., Zoccatelli, D., Marchi, L., Crema, S., Pirastru, M., and Borga, M.: Scale-dependence of observational and modelling uncertainties in forensic flash flood analysis, J. Hydrol., 607, 127502, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.127502, 2022.
An, H. and Ouyang, C.: A hybrid framework for real-time flash flood forecasting in small ungauged catchments: integrating hydrodynamic simulations with LSTM networks, J. Hydrol., 661, 133688, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133688, 2025.
Anagnostou, M. N., Nikolopoulos, E. I., Kalogiros, J., Anagnostou, E. N., Marra, F., Mair, E., Bertoldi, G., Tappeiner, U., and Borga, M.: Advancing precipitation estimation and streamflow simulations in complex terrain with X-band dual-polarization radar observations, Remote Sens.-Basel, 10, 1258, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10081258, 2018.
Arabameri, A., Saha, S., Chen, W., Roy, J., Pradhan, B., and Bui, D. T.: Flash flood susceptibility modelling using functional tree and hybrid ensemble techniques, J. Hydrol., 587, 125007, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.125007, 2020.
Arlikatti, S., Maghelal, P., Agnimitra, N., and Chatterjee, V.: Should I stay or should I go? Mitigation strategies for flash flooding in India, Int. J. Disast. Risk Re., 27, 48–56, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2017.09.019, 2018.
Asfaha, T. G., Frankl, A., Haile, M., Zenebe, A., and Nyssen, J.: Determinants of peak discharge in steep mountain catchments – Case of the Rift Valley escarpment of Northern Ethiopia, J. Hydrol., 529, 1725–1739, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2015.08.013, 2015.
Ashoor, A. and Eladawy, A.: Navigating catastrophe: lessons from Derna amid intensified flash floods in the Anthropocene, Euro-Mediterr. J. Environ. Integr., 9, 1125–1140, https://doi.org/10.1007/s41207-024-00566-4, 2024.
Ashraf, A. and Ahmad, I.: Evaluation of soil loss severity and ecological restoration approach for sustainable agriculture in the Hindu Kush, Karakoram and Himalaya region, J. Mt. Sci., 21, 1509–1521, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-023-8385-y, 2024.
Ashraf, M., Shahzad, S., Sequeria, P., Bashir, A., and Azmat, S. K.: Understanding challenges women face in flood-affected areas to access sexual and reproductive health services: A rapid assessment from a disaster-torn Pakistan, BioMed Res. Int., 2024, 1113634, 1–13, https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/1113634, 2024.
Attwa, M., El Bastawesy, M., Ragab, D., Othman, A., Assaggaf, H. M., and Abotalib, A. Z.: Toward an integrated and sustainable water resources management in structurally-controlled watersheds in desert environments using geophysical and remote sensing methods, Sustainability-Basel, 13, 4004, https://doi.org/10.3390/su13074004, 2021.
Aydogdu, M.: CFD technology in innovative spur dike design inspired by the Eğri (curved) Bridge, Sci. Rep.-UK, 15, 21308, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-06267-4, 2025.
Badoux, A., Graf, C., Rhyner, J., Kuntner, R., and McArdell, B. W.: A debris-flow alarm system for the Alpine Illgraben catchment: design and performance, Nat. Hazards, 49, 517–539, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-008-9303-x, 2009.
Baggio, T., Martini, M., Bettella, F., and D'Agostino, V.: Debris flow and debris flood hazard assessment in mountain catchments, Catena, 245, 108338, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2024.108338, 2024.
Bai, L., Shi, P., Li, Z., Li, P., Zhao, Z., Dong, J., and Cui, L.: Grass coverage and the runoff path length decreased by sedimentation have synergistic effects on runoff and sediment yields in a slope-gully system, revealed by rainfall simulation experiments, Catena, 218, 106577, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2022.106577, 2022.
Ballesteros Cánovas, J. A., Stoffel, M., Corona, C., Schraml, K., Gobiet, A., Tani, S., Sinabell, F., Fuchs, S., and Kaitna, R.: Debris-flow risk analysis in a managed torrent based on a stochastic life-cycle performance, Sci. Total Environ., 557–558, 142–153, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.036, 2016.
Ballesteros-Cánovas, J. A., Rodríguez-Morata, C., Garófano-Gómez, V., Rubiales, J. M., Sánchez-Salguero, R., and Stoffel, M.: Unravelling past flash flood activity in a forested mountain catchment of the Spanish Central System, J. Hydrol., 529, 468–479, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.11.027, 2015.
Barros, A. P. and Arulraj, M.: Remote sensing of orographic precipitation, in: Satellite Precipitation Measurement, vol. 2, Springer, 559–582, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35798-6_6, 2020.
Bates, N. S., Smith, J. A., and Villarini, G.: Flood response for the watersheds of the Fernow Experimental Forest in the central Appalachians, Water Resour. Res., 51, 4431–4453, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014WR015871, 2015.
Begley, T. A., Gurun, U. G., Purnanandam, A., and Weagley, D.: Disaster lending: “fair” prices but “unfair” access, Manage. Sci., 70, 8484–8505, https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2021.03199, 2024.
Benkirane, M., Laftouhi, N.-E., Khabba, S., and de la Hera-Portillo, Á.: Hydro statistical assessment of TRMM and GPM precipitation products against ground precipitation over a Mediterranean mountainous watershed (in the Moroccan High Atlas), Appl. Sci.-Basel, 12, 8309, https://doi.org/10.3390/app12168309, 2022.
Bhattacharyya, A. and Hastak, M.: Empirical causal analysis of flood risk factors on US flood insurance payouts: implications for solvency and risk reduction, J. Environ. Manage., 352, 120075, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120075, 2024.
Birkmann, J., Cardona, O. D., Carreño, M. L., Barbat, A. H., Pelling, M., Schneiderbauer, S., Kienberger, S., Keiler, M., Alexander, D., Zeil, P., and Welle, T.: Framing vulnerability, risk and societal responses: the MOVE framework, Nat. Hazards, 67, 193–211, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-013-0558-5, 2013.
Bohorquez, P., Pérez-Latorre, F. J., González-Planet, I., Jiménez-Melero, R., and Parra, G.: Nature-based solutions for flood mitigation and soil conservation in a steep-slope olive-orchard catchment (Arquillos, SE Spain), Appl. Sci.-Basel, 13, 2882, https://doi.org/10.3390/app13052882, 2023.
Boisson, E., Wilhelm, B., Garnier, E., Mélo, A., Anquetin, S., and Ruin, I.: Geo-historical database of flood impacts in Alpine catchments (HIFAVa database, Arve River, France, 1850–2015), Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 831–847, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-831-2022, 2022.
Bombino, G., Boix-Fayos, C., Gurnell, A. M., Tamburino, V., Zema, D. A., and Zimbone, S. M.: Check dam influence on vegetation species diversity in mountain torrents of the Mediterranean environment, Ecohydrology, 7, 678–691, https://doi.org/10.1002/eco.1389, 2014.
Bombino, G., Zema, D. A., Denisi, P., Lucas-Borja, M. E., Labate, A., and Zimbone, S. M.: Assessment of riparian vegetation characteristics in Mediterranean headwaters regulated by check dams using multivariate statistical techniques, Sci. Total Environ., 657, 597–607, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.045, 2019.
Bombino, G., Boix-Fayos, C., Cataldo, M. F., D'Agostino, D., Denisi, P., de Vente, J., Labate, A., and Zema, D. A.: A modified Catchment Connectivity Index for applications in semi-arid torrents of the Mediterranean environment, River Res. Appl., 36, 735–748, https://doi.org/10.1002/rra.3606, 2020.
Brázdil, R., Faturová, D., Šulc Michalková, M., Řehoř, J., Caletka, M., and Zahradníček, P.: Spatiotemporal variability of flash floods and their human impacts in the Czech Republic during the 2001–2023 period, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 3663–3682, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-3663-2024, 2024.
Bricker, J. D., Schwanghart, W., Adhikari, B. R., Moriguchi, S., Roeber, V., and Giri, S.: Performance of models for flash flood warning and hazard assessment: The 2015 Kali Gandaki landslide dam breach in Nepal, Mt. Res. Dev., 37, 5–15, https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-16-00043.1, 2017.
Bronstert, A., Agarwal, A., Boessenkool, B., Crisologo, I., Fischer, M., Heistermann, M., Köhn-Reich, L., López-Tarazón, J. A., Moran, T., Ozturk, U., Reinhardt-Imjela, C., and Wendi, D.: Forensic hydro-meteorological analysis of an extreme flash flood: The 2016-05-29 event in Braunsbach, SW Germany, Sci. Total Environ., 630, 977–991, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.241, 2018.
Buchenrieder, G., Brandl, J., and Balgah, A. R.: The perception of flood risks: A case study of Babessi in rural Cameroon, Int. J. Disast. Risk Sc., 12, 1–21, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13753-021-00345-7, 2021.
Buzzi, A., Davolio, S., Malguzzi, P., Drofa, O., and Mastrangelo, D.: Heavy rainfall episodes over Liguria in autumn 2011: numerical forecasting experiments, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 14, 1325–1340, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-14-1325-2014, 2014.
Çelik, H. E., Kurdoğlu, O., İnan, M., Kadıoğlu, M., and Nişancı, İ.: Identifying causes of the 2015 Hopa flash flood in NE Turkey and mitigation strategies, Environ. Monit. Assess., 192, 769, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-020-08737-w, 2020.
Chai, C., Wang, L., Chen, D., Zhou, J., Liu, H., Zhang, J., Wang, Y., Chen, T., and Liu, R.: Future snow changes and their impact on the upstream runoff in Salween, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 26, 4657–4683, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-4657-2022, 2022.
Chen, B., Chen, Y., Sun, J., Chen, T., Chen, C., and Hu, N.: Characteristics and formation mechanism of the sudden rainstorm inducing the “6.26” mountain torrent disaster in Mianning, Sichuan Province, Chinese J. Atmos. Sci., 47, 1–19, https://doi.org/10.3878/j.issn.1006-9895.2201.21186, 2023.
Chen, H., Xiong, J., Zhao, W., Chen, J., Zhang, X., Ruan, H., Fang, C., and Gong, L.: Catastrophic debris flow triggered by a June 26, 2023 rainstorm suggests the debris flow is still active 15 years after the Wenchuan seismic, Landslides, 21, 1883–1897, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-024-02279-9, 2024.
Cheng, D., Cui, Y., Su, F., Jia, Y., and Choi, C. E.: The characteristics of the Mocoa compound disaster event, Colombia, Landslides, 15, 1223–1232, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-018-0969-1, 2018.
Chiari, M. and Rickenmann, D.: Back-calculation of bedload transport in steep channels with a numerical model, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 36, 805–815, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.2108, 2011.
Chouhan, S. and Mukherjee, M.: Design and application of a multi-hazard risk rapid assessment questionnaire for hill communities in the Indian Himalayan region, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1267–1286, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-1267-2023, 2023.
Chu, Y., Song, W., and Chen, D.: Risk Identification of Mountain Torrent Hazard Using Machine Learning and Bayesian Model Averaging Techniques, Water-Sui, 16, 1556, https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111556, 2024.
Cislaghi, A. and Bischetti, G. B.: Best practices in post-flood surveys: The study case of Pioverna torrent, J. Agr. Eng., 53, https://doi.org/10.4081/jae.2022.1312, 2022.
Cui, P., Zhou, G. G. D., Zhu, X. H., and Zhang, J. Q.: Scale amplification of natural debris flows caused by cascading landslide dam failures, Geomorphology, 182, 173–189, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.11.009, 2013.
Desilets, S. L. E., Ferré, T. P. A., and Ekwurzel, B.: Flash flood dynamics and composition in a semiarid mountain watershed, Water Resour. Res., 44, W12436, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007WR006159, 2008.
Di, J., Xu, F., Bao, H., Xu, C., and Zhang, G.: Research on precipitation characteristics and dynamic critical thresholds of flash flood disasters, Torrential Rain Disast., 40, 655–663, https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1004-9045.2021.06.010, 2021.
Dietze, M., Hoffmann, T., Bell, R., Schrott, L., and Hovius, N.: A seismic approach to flood detection and characterization in upland catchments, Geophys. Res. Lett., 49, e2022GL100170, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022gl100170, 2022.
Ding, Y., Liu, X., and Chen, R.: Numerical Simulation of Alpine Flash Flood Flow and Sedimentation in Gullies With Large Gradient Variations, Front. Environ. Sci., 10, 858692, https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.858692, 2022.
Douinot, A., Iffly, J. F., Tailliez, C., Meisch, C., and Pfister, L.: Flood patterns in a catchment with mixed bedrock geology and a hilly landscape: identification of flashy runoff contributions during storm events, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 26, 5185–5206, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-5185-2022, 2022.
Ebel, B. A.: Temporal evolution of measured and simulated infiltration following wildfire in the Colorado Front Range, USA: Shifting thresholds of runoff generation and hydrologic hazards, J. Hydrol., 585, 124765, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.124765, 2020.
Ehsan-ul-Haq: Community response to climatic hazards in Northern Pakistan, Mt. Res. Dev., 27, 308–312, https://doi.org/10.1659/mrd.0947, 2007.
El-Hames, A. and Al-Wagdany, A.: Reconstruction of flood characteristics in urbanized arid regions: case study of the flood of 25 November 2009 in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, Hydrolog. Sci. J., 57, 507–516, https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2012.665995, 2012.
El-Magd, S. A. A., Pradhan, B., and Alamri, A.: Machine learning algorithm for flash flood prediction mapping in Wadi El-Laqeita and surroundings, Central Eastern Desert, Egypt, Arab. J. Geosci., 14, 323, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-021-06466-z, 2021.
Esraz-Ul-Zannat, M., Dedekorkut-Howes, A., and Morgan, E. A.: A review of nature-based infrastructures and their effectiveness for urban flood risk mitigation, WIREs Clim. Change, 15, e889, https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.889, 2024.
Faccini, F., Luino, F., Sacchini, A., Turconi, L., and De Graff, J. V.: Geohydrological hazards and urban development in the Mediterranean area: an example from Genoa (Liguria, Italy), Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 15, 2631–2652, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-15-2631-2015, 2015.
Farinotti, D., Round, V., Huss, M., Compagno, L., and Zekollari, H.: Large hydropower and water-storage potential in future glacier-free basins, Nature, 575, 341–344, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1740-z, 2019.
Fortugno, D., Boix-Fayos, C., Bombino, G., Denisi, P., Quiñonero Rubio, J. M., Tamburino, V., and Zema, D. A.: Adjustments in channel morphology due to land-use changes and check dam installation in mountain torrents of Calabria (southern Italy), Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 42, 2469–2483, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4197, 2017.
Fowler, H. J., Lenderink, G., Prein, A. F., Westra, S., Allan, R. P., Ban, N., Barbero, R., Berg, P., Blenkinsop, S., Do, H. X., Guerreiro, S., Haerter, J. O., Kendon, E. J., Lewis, E., Schaer, C., Sharma, A., Villarini, G., Wasko, C., and Zhang, X.: Anthropogenic intensification of short-duration rainfall extremes, Nat. Rev. Earth Environ., 2, 107–122, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-00128-6, 2021.
Fuchs, S., Keiler, M., Sokratov, S., and Shnyparkov, A.: Spatiotemporal dynamics: The need for an innovative approach in mountain hazard risk management, Nat. Hazards, 68, 1217–1241, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-012-0508-7, 2013.
Gabet, E. J. and Sternberg, P.: The effects of vegetative ash on infiltration capacity, sediment transport, and the generation of progressively bulked debris flows, Geomorphology, 101, 666–673, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.03.005, 2008.
Galia, T., Škarpich, V., Ruman, S., and Macurová, T.: Check dams decrease the channel complexity of intermediate reaches in the Western Carpathians (Czech Republic), Sci. Total Environ., 662, 881–894, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.305, 2019.
Gan, B.-r., Liu, X.-n., Yang, X.-g., Wang, X.-k., and Zhou, J.-w.: The impact of human activities on the occurrence of mountain flood hazards: lessons from the 17 August 2015 flash flood/debris flow event in Xuyong County, south-western China, Nat. Hazards Risk, 9, 816–840, https://doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2018.1480539, 2018.
Gao, G., Li, J., Feng, P., Liu, J., and Wang, Y.: Impacts of climate and land-use change on flood events with different return periods in a mountainous watershed of North China, J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud., 55, 101943, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101943, 2024.
Gao, Z.-c., Shi, P., Li, Z.-b., Li, P., Bai, L.-l., Jia, Y., and Cui, L.: Flood risk assessment of check dams in the Wangmaogou watershed on the Loess Plateau of China, J. Mt. Sci., 20, 3631–3647, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-023-8222-3, 2023.
Ge, Y.-G., Cui, P., Guo, X.-J., Song, G.-H., and Liu, W.-M.: Characteristics, causes and mitigation of catastrophic debris flow hazard on 21 July 2011 at the Longda Watershed of Songpan County, China, J. Mt. Sci., 10, 261–272, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-013-2414-1, 2013.
Ghosh, C. and Bhattacharya, S.: Landslides and erosion control measures by vetiver system, in: Disaster Risk Governance in India and Cross Cutting Issues, Springer, 387–413, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-3310-0_19, 2018.
González-Romero, J., Lucas-Borja, M., Plaza-Álvarez, P., Sagra, J., Moya, D., and De Las Heras, J.: Short-term effects of postfire check-dam construction on ephemeral stream vegetation in a semiarid climate of SE Spain, Sci. Total Environ., 671, 776–785, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.366, 2019.
Gourley, J. J., Flamig, Z. L., Vergara, H., Kirstetter, P.-E., Clark III, R. A., Argyle, E., Arthur, A., Martinaitis, S., Terti, G., Erlingis, J., Hong, Y., and Howard, K. W.: The FLASH project: Improving the tools for flash flood monitoring and prediction across the United States, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 98, 361–372, https://doi.org/10.1175/bams-d-15-00247.1, 2017.
Hao, S., Wang, W., Ma, Q., Li, C., Wen, L., Tian, J., and Liu, C.: Analysis on the Disaster Mechanism of “8.12” Flash Flood in Liulin River Basin, Water-Sui, 14, 2017, https://doi.org/10.3390/w14132017, 2022.
Hao, S., Wang, W., Ma, Q., Li, C., Wen, L., Tian, J., and Liu, C.: Model-based mechanism analysis of “7.20” flash flood disaster in Wangzongdian River basin, Water-Sui, 15, 304, https://doi.org/10.3390/w15020304, 2023.
Hasan, M. A., Islam, A. S., and Akanda, A. S.: Climate projections and extremes in dynamically downscaled CMIP5 model outputs over the Bengal delta: a quartile based bias-correction approach with new gridded data, Clim. Dynam., 51, 2169–2190, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-017-4006-1, 2018.
Hashida, Y. and Dundas, S. J.: The effects of a voluntary property buyout and acquisition program on coastal housing markets: Evidence from New York, J. Environ. Econ. Manag., 121, 102873, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeem.2023.102873, 2023.
He, B., Li, C., Yao, Q., Wang, H., Luo, L., and Ma, M.: The disaster-causing factors of the flash floods for the July 20th extreme rainstorm in Henan, China, Front. Earth Sci., 12, 1438421, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2024.1438421, 2024.
Helmi, A. M. and Zohny, O.: Flash flood risk assessment in Egypt, in: Flash floods in Egypt, Springer, 253–312, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29635-3_13, 2020.
Hemmati, M., Ellingwood, B. R., and Mahmoud, H. N.: The role of urban growth in resilience of communities under flood risk, Earths Future, 8, e2019EF001382, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019ef001382, 2020.
Hirayama, N., Yamashita, K., Baba, T., and Taki, K.: Relationship between creation of local hazard map and flood damage mitigation activities by residents' association: case study in Shiga Prefecture, Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Ser. G (Environmental Research), 76, I_253–I_260, https://doi.org/10.2208/jscejer.76.5_I_253, 2020.
Hock, R., Rasul, G., Adler, C., Cáceres, B., Gruber, S., Hirabayashi, Y., Jackson, M., Kääb, A., Kang, S., Kutuzov, S., Milner, A., Molau, U., Morin, S., Orlove, B., and Steltzer, H.: High mountain areas, in: The Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate: Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by: Pörtner, H.-O., Roberts, D. C., Masson-Delmotte, V., Zhai, P., Tignor, M., Poloczanska, E., Mintenbeck, K., Alegría, A., Nicolai, M., Okem, A., Petzold, J., Rama, B., and Weyer, N. M., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 131–202, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964.004, 2022.
Hou, J., Li, B., Tong, Y., Ma, L., Ball, J., Luo, H., Liang, Q., and Xia, J.: Cause analysis for a new type of devastating flash flood, Hydrol. Res., 51, 1–16, https://doi.org/10.2166/nh.2019.091, 2020.
Ilinca, V.: Using morphometrics to distinguish between debris flow, debris flood and flood (Southern Carpathians, Romania), Catena, 197, 104982, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2020.104982, 2021.
IPCC: Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by: Core Writing Team, Lee, H., and Romero, J., IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 35–115, https://doi.org/10.59327/IPCC/AR6-9789291691647, 2023.
Isserman, A. M.: The location quotient approach to estimating regional economic impacts, J. Am. I. Planners, 43, 33–41, https://doi.org/10.1080/01944367708977758, 1977.
Jacobs, L., Dewitte, O., Poesen, J., Delvaux, D., Thiery, W., and Kervyn, M.: The Rwenzori Mountains, a landslide-prone region?, Landslides, 13, 519–536, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-015-0582-5, 2016a.
Jacobs, L., Maes, J., Mertens, K., Sekajugo, J., Thiery, W., van Lipzig, N., Poesen, J., Kervyn, M., and Dewitte, O.: Reconstruction of a flash flood event through a multi-hazard approach: focus on the Rwenzori Mountains, Uganda, Nat. Hazards, 84, 851–876, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-016-2458-y, 2016b.
Jin, E.-Z., Wang, Y.-G., Xu, Z.-X., Yan, X.-F., and Wang, X.-K.: Hydrometeorological-modeling-based analysis and risk assessment of a torrential rainfall flash flood in a data deficient area in Wenchuan County, Sichuan Province, China, Stoch. Env. Res. Risk A., 38, 33–50, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-023-02553-7, 2024.
Jodar-Abellan, A., Valdes-Abellan, J., Pla, C., and Gomariz-Castillo, F.: Impact of land use changes on flash flood prediction using a sub-daily SWAT model in five Mediterranean ungauged watersheds (SE Spain), Sci. Total Environ., 657, 1578–1591, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.034, 2019.
Johnson, R. M. and Warburton, J.: Annual sediment budget of a UK mountain torrent, Geogr. Ann. A, 84, 73–88, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0435-3676.2002.00162.x, 2002.
Kaiser, M., Günnemann, S., and Disse, M.: Providing guidance on efficient flash flood documentation: an application based approach, J. Hydrol., 581, 124466, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.124466, 2020.
Ke, G., Cheng, S., Li, Z., Wang, T., Wu, H., and Zhen, Y.: Impact of different types of sediment-filled check dam systems on runoff erosion dynamics in a Loess Plateau watershed, Int. J. Sediment Res., 40, 322–332, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsrc.2024.12.007, 2025.
Khodayar, S., Kushta, J., Catto, J. L., Dafis, S., Davolio, S., Ferrarin, C., Flaounas, E., Groenemeijer, P., Hatzaki, M., Hochman, A., Kotroni, V., Landa, J., Láng-Ritter, I., Lazoglou, G., Liberato, M. L. R., Miglietta, M. M., Papagiannaki, K., Patlakas, P., Stojanov, R., and Zittis, G.: Mediterranean cyclones in a changing climate: A review on their socio-economic impacts, Rev. Geophys., 63, e2024RG000853, https://doi.org/10.1029/2024RG000853, 2025.
Kihslinger, R., Streitwieser, A., Lerner, M., Moraga-Lewy, N., James-Kavanaugh, K., Salvesen, D., Anagnost, J., Chandler, T., Foster, C., and Liu, S.: Floodplain buyouts: An action guide for local governments on how to maximize community benefits, habitat connectivity, and resilience, Environmental Law Institute and University of North Carolina Institute for the Environment, Washington, DC, 72 pp., https://www.eli.org/research-report/floodplain-buyouts-action-guide-local-governments-how-maximize-community-benefits (last access: 12 October 2026), 2017.
Kolosov, M. and Selezneva, N.: Engineering flood protection on mountain rivers, Power Technol. Eng., 54, 291–297, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10749-020-01204-z, 2020.
Koreňová, S., Šulc Michalková, M., Máčka, Z., Pöppl, R., and Donoval, J.: Linking sediment connectivity with sediment transport risk assessment in small forested catchments in the Czech Republic, River Res. Appl., 40, 1343–1362, https://doi.org/10.1002/rra.4295, 2024.
Krishnaveni, M. and Arunya, K.: Analysing micro-level rainfall trends: Implications for water conservation in Paravanar River Basin, Asian J. Water Environ. Pollut., 21, 1–14, https://doi.org/10.3233/ajw240054, 2024.
Kumar, A., Asthana, A., Priyanka, R. S., Jayangondaperumal, R., Gupta, A. K., and Bhakuni, S.: Assessment of landslide hazards induced by extreme rainfall event in Jammu and Kashmir Himalaya, northwest India, Geomorphology, 284, 72–87, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2017.01.003, 2017.
Kumar, A. S., Majumder, R., Kapadia, V. P., and Bhatia, U.: Partial flood defenses shift risks and amplify inequality in a core–periphery city, Nat. Cities, 2, 835–846, https://doi.org/10.1038/s44284-025-00299-7, 2025.
Lai, R., Li, J., Wang, P., Guo, Y., Xu, L., Zhang, X., Wang, M., and Zhang, X.: Cumulative sedimentation hazard map of urban areas subject to hyperconcentrated flash flood: A case study of Suide County in the Wuding River basin, China, J. Flood Risk Manag., 17, e12996, https://doi.org/10.1111/jfr3.12996, 2024.
Lara, G., Perucca, L., and Rothis, M.: Morphometric, geomorphologic and flood hazard analysis of an arid mountain river basin, central pre-Andes of Argentina, southwestern South America, Geogr. Fis. Din. Quat., 41, 83–97, https://doi.org/10.4461/GFDQ.2018.41.6, 2018.
Le Mesnil, M., Moussa, R., Charlier, J.-B., and Caballero, Y.: Impact of karst areas on runoff generation, lateral flow and interbasin groundwater flow at the storm-event timescale, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 1259–1282, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-1259-2021, 2021.
Leal, M., Fragoso, M., Lopes, S., and Reis, E.: Material damage caused by high-magnitude rainfall based on insurance data: Comparing two flooding events in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area and Madeira Island, Portugal, Int. J. Disast. Risk Re., 51, 101806, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2020.101806, 2020.
Liu, C., Guo, L., Ye, L., Zhang, S., Zhao, Y., and Song, T.: A review of advances in China's flash flood early-warning system, Nat. Hazards, 92, 619–634, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-018-3173-7, 2018.
Liu, T., Wang, Y., Yu, H., and Chen, Y.: Using statistical functions and hydro-hydraulic models to develop human vulnerability curves for flash floods: the flash flood of the Taitou catchment (China) in 2016, Int. J. Disast. Risk Re., 73, 102876, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2022.102876, 2022.
Liu, W., Chen, J., Li, H., Zhu, S., and Duan, Z.: Assessing carbon emission impacts of sponge city development: insights from runoff reduction analysis, Water Sci. Technol., 91, 923–945, https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2025.046, 2025a.
Liu, Y., Chang, Y., Haag, I., Krumm, J., Sivaprasad, V., Aigner, D., Vereecken, H., and Hendricks Franssen, H.-J.: Historical memory in remotely sensed soil moisture can enhance flash flood modeling for headwater catchments in Germany, J. Hydrol., 648, 132395, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2024.132395, 2025b.
Llasat, M. C., Marcos-Matamoros, R., Pascual, R., Rigo, T., Insúa-Costa, D., and Crespo-Otero, A.: Western Mediterranean flash floods through the Lens of Alcanar (NE Iberian Peninsula): Meteorological drivers and trends, Atmos. Res., 326, 108266, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108266, 2025.
Lombardi, A., Colaiuda, V., Verdecchia, M., and Tomassetti, B.: User-oriented hydrological indices for early warning systems with validation using post-event surveys: flood case studies in the Central Apennine District, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 1969–1992, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-1969-2021, 2021.
Lombardi, A., Tomassetti, B., Colaiuda, V., Di Antonio, L., Tuccella, P., Montopoli, M., Ravazzani, G., Marzano, F. S., Lidori, R., and Panegrossi, G.: On the combined use of rain gauges and GPM IMERG satellite rainfall products for hydrological modelling: impact assessment of the cellular-automata-based methodology in the Tanaro River basin in Italy, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 28, 3777–3797, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-28-3777-2024, 2024.
Ma, M., He, B., Wan, J., Jia, P., Guo, X., Gao, L., Maguire, L. W., and Hong, Y.: Characterizing the flash flooding risks from 2011 to 2016 over China, Water-Sui, 10, 704, https://doi.org/10.3390/w10060704, 2018.
Manoj, J. A., Loritz, R., Villinger, F., Mälicke, M., Koopaeidar, M., Göppert, H., and Zehe, E.: Toward flash flood modeling using gradient resolving representative hillslopes, Water Resour. Res., 60, e2023WR036420, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023WR036420, 2024.
Maqtan, R., Othman, F., Wan Jaafar, W. Z., Sherif, M., and El-Shafie, A.: A scoping review of flash floods in Malaysia: current status and the way forward, Nat. Hazards, 114, 2387–2416, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-022-05486-6, 2022.
Maqtan, R., Othman, F., Jaafar, W. Z. W., and Elshafie, A.: Flash flood data compilation and risk insights in Peninsular Malaysia: a data-driven analysis (2014–2019), Nat. Hazards, 121, 10421–10447, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-025-07228-w, 2025.
Marchi, L., Comiti, F., Crema, S., and Cavalli, M.: Channel control works and sediment connectivity in the European Alps, Sci. Total Environ., 668, 389–399, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.416, 2019.
Martín, A., Romero, R., De Luque, A., Alonso, S., Rigo, T., and Llasat, M.: Sensitivities of a flash flood event over Catalonia: a numerical analysis, Mon. Weather Rev., 135, 651–669, https://doi.org/10.1175/mwr3316.1, 2007.
Mejía-Veintimilla, D., Ochoa-Cueva, P., Samaniego-Rojas, N., Félix, R., Arteaga, J., Crespo, P., Oñate-Valdivieso, F., and Fries, A.: River discharge simulation in the high andes of southern ecuador using high-resolution radar observations and meteorological station data, Remote Sens.-Basel, 11, 2804, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11232804, 2019.
Meléndez-Landaverde, E. R., Werner, M., and Verkade, J.: Exploring protective decision-making in the context of impact-based flood warnings, J. Flood Risk Manag., 13, e12587, https://doi.org/10.1111/jfr3.12587, 2020.
Miglietta, M. M. and Davolio, S.: Dynamical forcings in heavy precipitation events over Italy: lessons from the HyMeX SOP1 campaign, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 26, 627–646, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-26-627-2022, 2022.
Ministry of Water Resources of the People's Republic of China: Technical Specification for Delimitation of River and Lake Management Scope (SL/T 852–2025), Ministry of Water Resources of the People's Republic of China, Beijing, China, https://slt.fujian.gov.cn/ztzl/lsfzhzz/zcwj/202511/t20251119_7035553.htm (last access: 16 August 2026), 2025 (in Chinese).
Mishra, A.: Cloudburst and landslides in Uttarakhand: A natures fury?, Mausam, 66, 139–144, https://doi.org/10.54302/mausam.v66i1.374, 2015.
Mohanty, A., Hussain, M., Mishra, M., Kattel, D., and Pal, I.: Exploring community resilience and early warning solution for flash floods, debris flow and landslides in conflict prone villages of Badakhshan, Afghanistan, Int. J. Disast. Risk Re., 33, 5–15, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2018.07.012, 2019.
Morin, E., Grodek, T., Dahan, O., Benito, G., Kulls, C., Jacoby, Y., Van Langenhove, G., Seely, M., and Enzel, Y.: Flood routing and alluvial aquifer recharge along the ephemeral arid Kuiseb River, Namibia, J. Hydrol., 368, 262–275, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2009.02.015, 2009.
Mukherjee, S., Amatya, D. M., Jalowska, A. M., Campbell, J. L., Johnson, S. L., Elder, K., Panda, S., Grace, J. M., and Kikoyo, D.: Comparison of on-site versus NOAA's extreme precipitation intensity-duration-frequency estimates for six forest headwater catchments across the continental United States, Stoch. Env. Res. Risk A., 37, 4051–4070, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-023-02495-0, 2023.
Mukhopadhyay, B., Cornelius, J., and Zehner, W.: Application of kinematic wave theory for predicting flash flood hazards on coupled alluvial fan–piedmont plain landforms, Hydrol. Process., 17, 839–868, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.1241, 2003.
Murray, V., Abrahams, J., Abdallah, C., Ahmed, K., Angeles, L., Benouar, D., Brenes Torres, T. A., Chan Hun, C., Cox, S., Douris, J., Fagan, L., Fra Paleo, U., Han, Q., Handmer, J., Hodson, S., Khim, W., Mayner, L., Moody, N., Leal de Moraes, O. L., Nagy, M., Norris, J., Peduzzi, P., Perwaiz, A., Peters, K., Radisch, J., Reichstein, M., Schneider, J., Smith, A., Souch, C., Stevance, A.-S., Triyanti, A., Weir, M., and Wright, N.: Hazard Information Profiles: Supplement to UNDRR-ISC Hazard Definition & Classification Review: Technical Report, United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, Geneva, Switzerland, and International Science Council, Paris, France, 827 pp., https://doi.org/10.24948/2021.05, 2021.
Myhre, G., Alterskjær, K., Stjern, C. W., Hodnebrog, Ø., Marelle, L., Samset, B. H., Sillmann, J., Schaller, N., Fischer, E., Schulz, M., and Stohl, A.: Frequency of extreme precipitation increases extensively with event rareness under global warming, Sci. Rep.-UK, 9, 16063, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52277-4, 2019.
Nearing, G., Cohen, D., Dube, V., Gauch, M., Gilon, O., Harrigan, S., Hassidim, A., Klotz, D., Kratzert, F., Metzger, A., Nevo, S., Pappenberger, F., Prudhomme, C., Shalev, G., Shenzis, S., Tekalign, T. Y., Weitzner, D., and Matias, Y.: Global prediction of extreme floods in ungauged watersheds, Nature, 627, 559–563, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07145-1, 2024.
Nearing, G. S., Kratzert, F., Sampson, A. K., Pelissier, C. S., Klotz, D., Frame, J. M., Prieto, C., and Gupta, H. V.: What role does hydrological science play in the age of machine learning?, Water Resour. Res., 57, e2020WR028091, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020WR028091, 2021.
Nowbuth, M., Spataru, C., Esteban, M., and Carvalho, P.: Perception and community input towards flash flood management in Mauritius Island, Nat. Hazards, 121, 567–597, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-024-06777-w, 2025.
Nyman, P., Sheridan, G. J., Smith, H. G., and Lane, P. N. J.: Evidence of debris flow occurrence after wildfire in upland catchments of south-east Australia, Geomorphology, 125, 383–401, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2010.10.016, 2011.
Oo, K. T., Haishan, C., and Jonah, K.: Climate change impact on the trigger of natural disasters over South-Eastern Himalayas foothill region of Myanmar: Extreme rainfall analysis, Int. J. Geophys., 2023, 2186857, 1–20, https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/2186857, 2023.
Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., McGuinness, L. A., Stewart, L. A., Thomas, J., Tricco, A. C., Welch, V. A., Whiting, P., and Moher, D.: The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews, BMJ, 372, n71, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71, 2021.
Palumbo, M., Ascione, A., Santo, A., and Santangelo, N.: Evaluation of sediment budgets in catchments prone to flash flood-related debris flows: A case study from the southern Apennines (Italy), Geomorphology, 454, 109174, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2024.109174, 2024.
Peng, Q., Liu, X., Huang, E., and Yang, K.: Experimental study on the influence of vegetation on the slope flow concentration time, Nat. Hazards, 98, 751–763, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-019-03728-8, 2019.
Pereira, P., Oliva, M., and Baltrenaite, E.: Modelling extreme precipitation in hazardous mountainous areas. Contribution to landscape planning and environmental management, J. Environ. Eng. Landsc., 18, 329–342, https://doi.org/10.3846/jeelm.2010.38, 2010.
Piccarreta, M., Bentivenga, M., and Piccarreta, R.: Trend analysis of hourly rainfall in the Mediterranean: A case study of the Basilicata Region, Southern Italy (2001–2024), Theor. Appl. Climatol., 157, 10, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-025-05939-5, 2026.
Prince, H. C., Bhatt, C., Roy, A., Kumari, S., Raghubanshi, A. S., and Singh, R. P.: Entropy-based modelling for flash flood hazard mapping in Uttarakhand Himalaya, J. Indian Soc. Remote, 52, 127–138, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12524-023-01797-8, 2024.
Ragettli, S., Zhou, J., Wang, H., Liu, C., and Guo, L.: Modeling flash floods in ungauged mountain catchments of China: A decision tree learning approach for parameter regionalization, J. Hydrol., 555, 330–346, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2017.10.031, 2017.
Ran, Q.-h., Qian, Q., Li, W., Fu, X.-d., Yu, X., and Xu, Y.-p.: Impact of earthquake-induced-landslides on hydrologic response of a steep mountainous catchment: a case study of the Wenchuan earthquake zone, J. Zhejiang Univ.-Sc. A, 16, 131–142, https://doi.org/10.1631/jzus.a1400039, 2015.
Ratnadiwakara, D. and Venugopal, B.: Climate risk perceptions and demand for flood insurance, Financ. Manage., 52, 297–331, https://doi.org/10.1111/fima.12414, 2023.
Rehman, S. U., Ahmed, A., Gilja, G., Valyrakis, M., Ghumman, A. R., Pasha, G. A., and Farooq, R.: A laboratory study of the role of nature-based solutions in improving flash flooding resilience in hilly terrains, Water-Sui, 16, 124, https://doi.org/10.3390/w16010124, 2023.
Rienow, A., Kantakumar, L. N., Ghazaryan, G., Dröge-Rothaar, A., Sticksel, S., Trampnau, B., and Thonfeld, F.: Modelling the spatial impact of regional planning and climate change prevention strategies on land consumption in the Rhine-Ruhr Metropolitan Area 2017–2030, Landscape Urban Plan., 217, 104284, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2021.104284, 2022.
Rijal, M., Luo, P., Mishra, B. K., Zhou, M., and Wang, X.: Global systematical and comprehensive overview of mountainous flood risk under climate change and human activities, Sci. Total Environ., 941, 173672, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173672, 2024.
Rindsfüser, N., Zischg, A. P., and Keiler, M.: Monitoring flood risk evolution: A systematic review, iScience, 27, 110653, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2024.110653, 2024.
Rodgers, W., Mahmood, R., Leeper, R., and Yan, J.: Land cover change, surface mining, and their impacts on a heavy rain event in the Appalachia, Ann. Am. Assoc. Geogr., 108, 1187–1209, https://doi.org/10.1080/24694452.2018.1460249, 2018.
Rosa, D. W. B., Nascimento, N. O., Moura, P. M., and Macedo, G. D.: Assessment of the hydrological response of an urban watershed to rainfall-runoff events in different land-use scenarios – Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil, Water Sci. Technol., 81, 679–693, https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2020.148, 2020.
Roy, D., Aithal, B. H., Dhar, A., and Desai, V. R.: Impact of land use/land cover change on future flash flood vulnerability and monsoon runoff in an ungauged Himalayan Watershed, J. Hydrol. Eng., 29, 05024006, https://doi.org/10.1061/jhyeff.heeng-6173, 2024.
Ruiz-Villanueva, V., Díez-Herrero, A., Bodoque, J. M., and Bladé, E.: Large wood in rivers and its influence on flood hazard, Cuad. Investig. Geogr., 40, 229–246, https://doi.org/10.18172/cig.2523, 2014.
Saharia, M., Kirstetter, P.-E., Vergara, H., Gourley, J. J., and Hong, Y.: Characterization of floods in the United States, J. Hydrol., 548, 524–535, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2017.03.010, 2017.
Santo, A., Santangelo, N., Forte, G., and De Falco, M.: Post flash flood survey: The 14th and 15th October 2015 event in the Paupisi-Solopaca area (Southern Italy), J. Maps, 13, 19–25, https://doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2016.1249034, 2017.
Santos-González, J., Gómez-Villar, A., González-Gutiérrez, R. B., Corella, J. P., Benito, G., Redondo-Vega, J. M., Melón-Nava, A., and Valero-Garcés, B.: Geomorphological impact, hydraulics and watershed-lake connectivity during extreme floods in mountain areas: The 1959 Vega de Tera dam failure, NW Spain, Geomorphology, 375, 107531, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2020.107531, 2021.
Schulte-Wülwer-Leidig, A., Gangi, L., Stötter, T., Braun, M., and Schmid-Breton, A.: Transboundary cooperation and sustainable development in the Rhine Basin, in: Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management, IntechOpen, 123–147, https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73260, 2018.
Scorpio, V., Cavalli, M., Steger, S., Crema, S., Marra, F., Zaramella, M., Borga, M., Marchi, L., and Comiti, F.: Storm characteristics dictate sediment dynamics and geomorphic changes in mountain channels: A case study in the Italian Alps, Geomorphology, 403, 108173, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2022.108173, 2022.
Seo, D. and Kwon, Y.: Sustainable strategies for the dynamic equilibrium of the Urban stream, cheonggyecheon, IOP C. Ser. Earth Env., 143, 012068, https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/143/1/012068, 2018.
Sharif, H. O., Hassan, A. A., Bin-Shafique, S., Xie, H., and Zeitler, J.: Hydrologic Modeling of an Extreme Flood in the Guadalupe River in Texas, J. Am. Water Resour. As., 46, 881–891, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-1688.2010.00459.x, 2010.
Shen, X.: Since July, Chongqing has successfully issued early warnings and managed 21 disaster-risk incidents, avoiding possible casualties among 651 people, Chongqing Daily, 18 July 2024, p. 2, https://epaper.cqrb.cn/cqrb/2024-07/18/002/cqrb20240718002.pdf (last access: 12 October 2026), 2024 (in Chinese).
Shi, K., Wu, Y., Sun, X., Cui, Y., Chen, Z., Song, L., Fang, F., Cao, W., Ma, J., Huang, C., Gao, S., Yu, L., and Bryan, B. A.: Extensive terrestrial biodiversity threats from global hillside urban expansion, Nat. Cities, 2, 937–947, https://doi.org/10.1038/s44284-025-00316-9, 2025.
Šilhán, K.: Frequency, predisposition, and triggers of floods in flysch Carpathians: regional study using dendrogeomorphic methods, Geomorphology, 234, 243–253, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.12.041, 2015.
Singh, A., Anand, V., Durga Rao, K. H. V., P., S. R., and Chauhan, P.: Unveiling the catastrophic landslide-induced flash flood in Teesta River, Sikkim: insight from South Lhonak Glacial Lake, Landslides, 22, 837–855, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-024-02378-7, 2025.
Singh, G., Rawat, M., and Pandey, A.: Debris flow simulation and modeling of the 2021 flash flood hazard caused by a rock-ice avalanche in the Rishiganga River valley of Uttarakhand, Environ. Monit. Assess., 195, 1118, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-11774-w, 2023.
Snethlage, M. A., Geschke, J., Ranipeta, A., Jetz, W., Yoccoz, N. G., Körner, C., Spehn, E. M., Fischer, M., and Urbach, D.: A hierarchical inventory of the world's mountains for global comparative mountain science, Sci. Data, 9, 149, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-022-01256-y, 2022a.
Snethlage, M. A., Geschke, J., Spehn, E. M., Ranipeta, A., Yoccoz, N. G., Körner, C., Jetz, W., Fischer, M., and Urbach, D.: GMBA Mountain Inventory v2, GMBA-EarthEnv [data set], https://doi.org/10.48601/earthenv-t9k2-1407, 2022b.
Spiridonov, V. and Balabanova, S.: The impact of climate change on intensive precipitation and flood types in Bulgaria, in: Climate and Land Use Impacts on Natural and Artificial Systems, Elsevier, 153–169, https://doi.org/10.1016/c2019-0-04549-9, 2021.
Stäubli, A., Nussbaumer, S. U., Allen, S. K., Huggel, C., Arguello, M., Costa, F., Hergarten, C., Martínez, R., Soto, J., Vargas, R., Zambrano, E., and Zimmermann, M.: Analysis of weather- and climate-related disasters in mountain regions using different disaster databases, in: Climate Change, Extreme Events and Disaster Risk Reduction: Towards Sustainable Development Goals, Springer, 17–41, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56469-2_2, 2018.
Stoffel, M., Wyżga, B., and Marston, R. A.: Floods in mountain environments: A synthesis, Geomorphology, 272, 1–9, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.07.008, 2016.
Sujon, H.: Flood management: Bangladesh and India must join forces, Nature, 607, 657–657, https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-01999-z, 2022.
Terry, J. P., Al Ruheili, A., Almarzooqi, M. A., Almheiri, R. Y., and Alshehhi, A. K.: The rain deluge and flash floods of summer 2022 in the United Arab Emirates: Causes, analysis and perspectives on flood-risk reduction, J. Arid Environ., 215, 105013, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2023.105013, 2023.
Tian, J., Xiao, T., and Zeng, S.: Intelligent identification of flood risks and resilience planning in piedmont areas with nature-based solutions, Ecol. Indic., 172, 113274, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2025.113274, 2025.
UNDRR: The Sendai Framework Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction, United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, https://www.undrr.org/terminology (last access: 16 August 2026), 2017.
Vieira, I., Barreto, V., Figueira, C., Lousada, S., and Prada, S.: The use of detention basins to reduce flash flood hazard in small and steep volcanic watersheds – a simulation from Madeira Island, J. Flood Risk Manag., 11, S930–S942, https://doi.org/10.1111/jfr3.12285, 2018.
Wang, Y., Meili, N., and Fatichi, S.: Evidence and controls of the acceleration of the hydrological cycle over land, Water Resour. Res., 59, e2022WR033970, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022wr033970, 2023.
Wang, Z. Y., Qi, P., and Melching, C. S.: Fluvial hydraulics of hyperconcentrated floods in Chinese rivers, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 34, 981–993, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1789, 2009.
Williams, A. R.: On sustaining the ecology and livestock industry of the Bayanbuluk Grasslands, J. Arid Land, 2, 57–63, 2010.
Yang, B., Yuan, X., Tang, F., and Liu, D.: Small wetlands: Critical to flood management, Science, 386, 859–859, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.ads2055, 2024.
Yang, Y.-f., Fu, S.-h., Liu, B.-y., Sun, B., Liu, C.-g., Wang, Z.-y., and Wu, S.-n.: Damage of check dams by extreme rainstorms on the Chinese Loess Plateau: A case study in the Chabagou watershed, J. Soil Water Conserv., 75, 746–754, https://doi.org/10.2489/jswc.2020.00138, 2020.
Zang, Y., Wang, H., Huang, J., Liu, G., and Li, J.: Community disaster resilience assessment and external association characteristics analysis based on accessibility of service facilities: From the perspective of 15 min life circle, Sustain. Cities Soc., 118, 106051, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2024.106051, 2025.
Zhai, X., Guo, L., Liu, R., and Zhang, Y.: Rainfall threshold determination for flash flood warning in mountainous catchments with consideration of antecedent soil moisture and rainfall pattern, Nat. Hazards, 94, 605–625, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-018-3404-y, 2018.
Zhai, X., Zhang, Y., Zhang, Y., Liu, R., Liu, C., Zhang, X., Chen, Y., Wang, X., and Wright, N.: Classifying flash flood disasters from disaster-prone environments to support mitigation measures, Water Resour. Res., 61, e2024WR037389, https://doi.org/10.1029/2024wr037389, 2025.
Zhang, T., Yin, Y., Li, B., Gao, Y., and Wang, M.: Characteristics and dynamic analysis of the October 2018 long-runout disaster chains in the Yarlung Zangbo River downstream, Tibet, China, Nat. Hazards, 113, 1563–1582, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-022-05358-z, 2022.
Zhao, G., Liu, R., Yang, M., Tu, T., Ma, M., Hong, Y., and Wang, X.: Large-scale flash flood warning in China using deep learning, J. Hydrol., 604, 127222, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.127222, 2022.
Zhao, Y., Wang, S., He, D., Jiang, L., Li, C., and Chen, C.: Multi-hazard risk assessment of the Great Wall relics: a case study in the Miyun District, Beijing, Landsc. Ecol. Eng., 19, 503–518, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11355-023-00556-8, 2023.
Zhao, Y., Wu, X., Guo, L., Qin, G., Li, X., and Li, H.: Evaluation of rainfall-threshold methods for flash flood warnings based on soil moisture conditions, Nat. Hazards, 121, 12053–12076, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-025-07272-6, 2025.
Zhou, G. G. D., Cui, P., Chen, H. Y., Zhu, X. H., Tang, J. B., and Sun, Q. C.: Experimental study on cascading landslide dam failures by upstream flows, Landslides, 10, 633–643, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-012-0352-6, 2013.
Zhu, L., Kang, L., Chen, Y., Lyu, J., Li, X., and Zhou, X.: MCS evolution and mechanism comparison in the two rainstorm events on the eastern slope of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, Torrential Rain Disast., 43, 509–520, 2024.
Zou, Y., Wei, Z., Zhan, Q., and Zhou, H.: An extreme storm over the Nanling Mountains during Typhoon Bilis and the roles of terrain, Nat. Hazards, 116, 795–815, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-022-05699-9, 2023.
Short summary
Mountain flash floods pose growing risks as climate and landscapes change. We reviewed 1,967 studies from 2000 to 2025 and found research concentrated in Europe and Asia. Rainfall and local conditions shape floods, while their impacts depend on where people live and their ability to respond. We propose combining warnings, planning, engineering and natural protection in a flexible approach to prevent new risks, reduce existing risks and manage those that remain.
Mountain flash floods pose growing risks as climate and landscapes change. We reviewed 1,967...
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint