Articles | Volume 25, issue 9
https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-2939-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-2939-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
01 Sep 2025
Research article |
| 01 Sep 2025
| 01 Sep 2025
Historical changes in drought characteristics and their impact on vegetation cover over Madagascar
Herijaona Hani-Roge Hundilida Randriatsara
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Department of Atmospheric Physics, Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, Charles University, V Holešovičkách 2, 18000, Prague 8, Czech Republic
Eva Holtanova
Department of Atmospheric Physics, Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, Charles University, V Holešovičkách 2, 18000, Prague 8, Czech Republic
Karim Rizwan
Key Laboratory of Meteorological Disaster, Ministry of Education (KLME)/Joint International Research Laboratory of Climate and Environment Change (ILCEC)/Collaborative Innovation Center on Forecast and Evaluation of Meteorological Disasters (CIC-FEMD), Nanjing, University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
Hassen Babaousmail
School of Atmospheric Science and Remote Sensing, Wuxi University, Wuxi 214105, China
Mirindra Finaritra Tanteliniaina Rabezanahary
citizen scientist, Antananarivo 101, Madagascar
Kokou Romaric Posset
Climate Change Department, Pan African University Institute for Water and Energy Sciences (Including Climate Change), C/O Université Abou Bekr Belkaid Tlemcen, Campus Chetouane, Tlemcen, Algeria
Donnata Alupot
Uganda National Meteorological Authority, Plot 21/28, Port Bell Road - Luzira, P.O. Box 7025, Kampala, Uganda
Brian Odhiambo Ayugi
East Africa Hub, Wyss Academy for Nature at the University of Bern, Nanyuki 10400, Kenya
Related authors
No articles found.
Eva Holtanová, Jan Koláček, and Lukas Brunner
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3360, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3360, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Earth System Dynamics (ESD).
Short summary
Short summary
Our global analysis assess temperature annual cycle and its changes using an innovative statistical approach. We reveal, e.g., slight temperature decreases during the historical period in some parts of the year. Future projections show different rates of warming between seasons, resulting in changes in the amplitude. The diagnostics introduced here can be tailored for different purposes and applied to other climatic variables, without making any prior assumptions about the annual cycle shape.
Cited articles
Ayugi, B. O., Eresanya, E. O., Onyango, A. O., Ogou, F. K., Okoro, E. C., Okoye, C. O., Okenwa, E. O., Siyanbola, W. A., Maduako, R. E., and Akintoye, S. A.: Review of meteorological drought in Africa: historical trends, impacts, mitigation measures, and prospects, Pure Appl. Geophys., 179, 1365–1386, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-022-02988-z, 2022.
Barimalala, R., Desbiolles, F., Blamey, R. C., and Reason, C.: Madagascar influence on the South Indian Ocean convergence zone, the Mozambique Channel trough and Southern African rainfall, Geophys. Res. Lett., 45, 11380–11389, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL079964, 2018.
Barimalala, R., Wainwright, C., Kolstad, E. W., and Demissie, T. D.: The 2019–21 drought in southern Madagascar, Weather and Climate Extremes, 46, 100723, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2024.100723, 2024.
Belda, M., Holtanová, E., Halenka, T., and Kalvová, J.: Climate classification revisited: from Köppen to Trewartha, Clim. Res., 59, 1–13, https://doi.org/10.3354/cr01204, 2014.
Bennett, A. C., McDowell, N. G., Allen, C. D., and Anderson-Teixeira, K. J.: Larger trees suffer most during drought in forests worldwide, Nat. Plants, 1, 15139, https://doi.org/10.1038/nplants.2015.139, 2015.
Burgess, N., Hales, J., Underwood, E., Dinerstein, E., Olson, D., Itoua, I., Schipper, J., Ricketts, T., and Newman, K.: Terrestrial eco-regions of Africa and Madagascar: A conservation assessment, World Wildlife Fund, ISBN: 1-55963-364-6, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292588815 (last access: 17 April 2024), 2004.
Butt, N., de Oliveira, P. A., and Costa, M. H.: Evidence that deforestation affects the onset of the rainy season in Rondonia, Brazil, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 116, D11120, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD015174, 2011.
Camberlin, P., Martiny, N., Philippon, N., and Richard, Y.: Determinants of the interannual relationships between remote-sensed photosynthetic activity and rainfall in tropical Africa, Remote Sens. Environ., 106, 199–216, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2006.08.009, 2007.
Chaves, M. M., Maroco, J. P., and Pereira, J. S.: Understanding plant responses to drought from genes to the whole plant, Funct. Plant Biol., 30, 239–264, https://doi.org/10.1071/FP02076, 2003.
Cook, B. I., Mankin, J. S., Marvel, K., Williams, A. P., Smerdon, J. E., and Anchukaitis, K. J.: Twenty–first Century Drought Projections in the CMIP6 Forcing Scenarios, Earth's Future, 8, e2019EF001461, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019EF001461, 2020.
Copernicus Climate Change Service: ERA5-Land monthly averaged data from 1950 to present, Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Climate Data Store (CDS) [data set], https://doi.org/10.24381/cds.68d2bb30, 2022.
Desbureaux, S. and Damania, R.: Rain, forests and farmers: Evidence of drought-induced deforestation in Madagascar and its consequences for biodiversity conservation, Biol. Conserv., 217, 337–347, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2018.03.005, 2018.
Didan, K.: MODIS/Terra Vegetation Indices Monthly L3 Global 0.05Deg CMG V061, NASA Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center [data set], Sioux Falls, South Dakota, USA, https://doi.org/10.5067/MODIS/MOD13C2.061, 2021.
Duku, C. and Hein, L.: The impact of deforestation on rainfall in Africa: a data-driven assessment, Environ. Res. Lett., 16, 064044, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abfcfb, 2021.
Dunning, C. M., Black, E., and Allan, R. P.: Later wet seasons with more intense rainfall over Africa under future climate change, J. Climate, 31, 9719–9738, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-18-0102.1, 2018.
Elkollaly, M., Khadr, M., and Zeidan, B.: Drought analysis in the Eastern Nile basin using the standardized precipitation index, Environ. Sci. Pollut. R., 25, 10265–10278, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-8347-9, 2018.
Funk, C., Peterson, P., Landsfeld, M., Pedreros, D., Verdin, J., Shukla, S., Husak, G., Rowland, J., Harrison, L., Hoell, L., and Michaelsen, J.: The climate hazards infrared precipitation with stations – A new environmental record for monitoring extremes, Sci. Data, 2, 150066, https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2015.66, 2015 (data available at: https://data.chc.ucsb.edu/products/CHIRPS-2.0/global_monthly/netcdf/chirps-v2.0.monthly.nc, last access: 19 August 2025).
Gouveia, C. M., Trigo, R. M., Beguería, S., and Vicente-Serrano, S. M.: Drought impacts on vegetation activity in the Mediterranean region: An assessment using remote sensing data and multi-scale drought indicators, Global Planet. Change, 151, 15–27, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2016.06.011, 2017.
Harrington, L. J., Wolski, P., Pinto, I., Ramarosandratana, A. M., Barimalala, R., Vautard, R., Philip, S., Kew, S., Singh, R., Heinrich, D., Arrighi, J., Raju, E., Thalheimer, L., Razanakoto, T., Aalst, M., Li, S., Bonnet, R., Yang, W., Otto, F., and Oldenborgh, G.: Limited role of climate change in extreme low rainfall associated with southern Madagascar food insecurity, 2019–21, Environmental Research: Climate, 1, 021003, https://doi.org/10.1088/2752-5295/aca695, 2022.
Hart, N. C. G., Washington, R., and Reason, C. J. C.: On the likelihood of tropical–extratropical cloud bands in the South Indian convergence zone during ENSO events, J. Climate, 31, 2797–2817, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-17-0221.1, 2018.
Heim Jr., R. R.: A review of twentieth-century drought indices used in the United States, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 83, 1149–1166, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477-83.8.1149, 2002.
Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Hirahara, S., Horányi, A., Muñoz-Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., Schepers, D., Simmons, A., Soci, C., Abdalla, S., Abellan, X., Balsamo, G., Bechtold, P., Biavati, G., Bidlot, J., Bonavita, M., Chiara, G. D., Dahlgren, P., Dee, D., Diamantakis, M., Dragani, R., Flemming, J., Forbes, R., Fuentes, M., Geer, A., Haimberger, L., Healy, S., Hogan, R. J., Hólm, E., Janisková, M., Keeley, S., Laloyaux, P., Lopez, P., Lupu, C., Radnoti, G., De Rosnay, P., Rozum, I., Vamborg, F., Villaume, S., and Thépaut, J.: The ERA5 global reanalysis, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 146, 1999–2049, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3803, 2020.
Hoell, A., Funk, C., Magadzire, T., Zinke, J., and Husak, G.: El Niño–Southern Oscillation diversity and Southern Africa teleconnections during Austral Summer, Clim. Dynam., 45, 1583–1599, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-014-2414-z, 2015.
Huang, J., Li, Y., Fu, C., Chen, F., Fu, Q., Dai, A., Shinoda, M., Ma, Z., Guo, W., Li, Z., Zhang, L., Liu, Y., Yu, H., He, Y., Xie, Y., Guan, X., Ji, M., Lin, L., Wang, S., Yan, H., and Wang, G.: Dryland climate change: Recent progress and challenges, Rev. Geophys., 55, 719–778, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016RG000550, 2017.
Huang, S., Tang, L., Hupy, J. P., Wang, Y., and Shao, G.: A commentary review on the use of normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) in the era of popular remote sensing, J. Forestry Res., 32, 1–6, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-020-01155-1, 2021.
Huete, A., Didan, K., Miura, T., Rodriguez, E. P., Gao, X., and Ferreira, L. G.: Overview of the radiometric and biophysical performance of the MODIS vegetation indices, Remote Sens. Environ., 83, 195–213, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(02)00096-2, 2002.
IPCC: Summary for policymakers, in: Climate Change 2021 – The physical science basis: Working Group I contribution to the sixth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, 3–32, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157896.001, 2021.
Jury, M., Parker, B. A., Raholijao, N., and Nassor, A.: Variability of summer rainfall over Madagascar: Climatic determinants at interannual scales, Mon. Weather Rev., 15, 1323–1332, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-15-0077.1, 1995.
Kalisa, W., Zhang, J., Igbawua, T., Ujoh, F., Ebohon, O. J., and Namugiza, J.: Spatio-temporal analysis of drought and return periods over the East African region using Standardized Precipitation Index from 1920 to 2016, Agr. Water Manage., 237, 106195, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2020.106195, 2020.
Kannenberg, S. A., Schwalm, C. R., and Anderegg, W. R. L.: Ghosts of the past: How drought legacy effects shape forest functioning and carbon cycling, Ecol. Lett., 23, 891–901, https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.13485, 2020.
Konduri, V. S., Morton, D. C., and Andela, N.: Tracking changes in vegetation structure following fire in the Cerrado biome using ICESat-2, J. Geophys. Res.-Biogeosci., 128, e2022JG007046, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JG007046, 2023.
Lawal, S., Hewitson, B., Egbebiyi, T. S., and Adesuyi, A.: On the suitability of using vegetation indices to monitor the response of Africa's terrestrial ecoregions to drought, Sci. Total Environ., 792, 148282, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148282, 2021.
Li, Y., Zhuang, J., Bai, P., Yu, W., Zhao, L., Huang, M., and Xing, Y.: Evaluation of three long-term remotely sensed precipitation estimates for meteorological drought monitoring over China, Remote Sens., 15, 86, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15010086, 2023.
Lim Kam Sian, K. T. C., Zhi, X., Ayugi, B. O., Onyutha, C., Shilenje, Z. W., and Ongoma, V.: Meteorological drought variability over Africa from multisource datasets, Atmosphere, 14, 1052, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14061052, 2023.
Macron, C., Richard, Y., Garot, T., Bessafi, M., Pohl, B., Ratiarison, A., and Razafindrabe, A.: Intraseasonal rainfall variability over Madagascar, Mon. Weather Rev., 144, 1877–1885, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-15-0077.1, 2016.
Martinez, A. d. l. I. and Labib, S. M.: Demystifying normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) for greenness exposure assessments and policy interventions in urban greening, Environ. Res., 220, 115155, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.115155, 2023.
Masih, I., Maskey, S., Mussá, F. E. F., and Trambauer, P.: A review of droughts on the African continent: a geospatial and long-term perspective, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 18, 3635–3649, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-18-3635-2014, 2014.
Mbatha, N. and Sifiso, X.: Time series analysis of MODIS-derived NDVI for the Hluhluwe-Imfolozi Park, South Africa: Impact of recent intense drought, Climate, 6, 95, https://doi.org/10.3390/cli6040095, 2018.
McKee, T. B., Doesken, N. J., and Kleist, J.: The relationship of drought frequency and duration to time scales, in: Proceedings of the 8th Conference on Applied Climatology, Anaheim, Canada, 17–23 January 1993, 179–184, 1993.
Mishra, A. K. and Singh, V. P.: A review of drought concepts, J. Hydrol., 391, 202–216, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012, 2010.
Nanzad, L., Zhang, J., Tuvdendorj, B., Nabil, M., Zhang, S., and Bai, Y.: NDVI anomaly for drought monitoring and its correlation with climate factors over Mongolia from 2000 to 2016, J. Arid Environ., 164, 69–77, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2019.01.019, 2019.
Narvaez, L. and Eberle, C.: Technical Report: Southern Madagascar food insecurity, Interconnected Disaster Risks 2021/2022, United Nations University - Institute for Environment and Human Security (UNU-EHS), https://doi.org/10.53324/JVWR3574, 2022.
Nicholson, S. E., Davenport, M. L., and Malo, A. R.: A comparison of the vegetation response to rainfall in the Sahel and East Africa, using normalized difference vegetation index from NOAA AVHRR, Climatic Change, 17, 209–241, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00138369, 1990.
Nkunzimana, A., Shuoben, B., Guojie, W., Alriah, M. A. A., Sarfo, I., Zhihui, X., Vuguziga, F., and Ayugi, B. O.: Assessment of drought events, their trend and teleconnection factors over Burundi, East Africa, Theor. Appl. Climatol., 145, 1293–1316, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-021-03680-3, 2021.
Nooni, I. K., Hagan, D. F. T., Wang, G., Ullah, W., Li, S., Lu, J., and Zhu, C.: Spatiotemporal characteristics and trend analysis of two evapotranspiration-based drought products and their mechanisms in sub-Saharan Africa, Remote Sens., 13, 533, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13030533, 2021.
Rakhmatova, N., Arushanov, M., Shardakova, L., Nishonov, B., Taryannikova, R., Rakhmatova, V., and Belikov, D. A.: Evaluation of the perspective of ERA-Interim and ERA5 reanalyses for calculation of drought indicators for Uzbekistan, Atmosphere, 12, 527, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12050527, 2021.
Randriamarolaza, L. Y. A., Aguilar, E., Skrynyk, O., Vicente-Serrano, S. M., and Domínguez-Castro, F.: Indices for daily temperature and precipitation in Madagascar, based on quality-controlled and homogenized data, 1950–2018, Int. J. Climatol., 42, 265–288, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.7243, 2021.
Randriatsara, H. H.-R. H., Hu, Z., Ayugi, B., Makula, E. K., Vuguziga, F., and Nkunzimana, A.: Interannual characteristics of rainfall over Madagascar and its relationship with the Indian Ocean sea surface temperature variation, Theor. Appl. Climatol., 148, 349–362, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-022-03950-8, 2022a.
Randriatsara, H. H.-R. H., Hu, Z., Xu, X., Ayugi, B., Sian, K. T. C. L. K., Mumo, R., and Ongoma, V.: Evaluation of gridded precipitation datasets over Madagascar, Int. J. Climatol., 42, 7028–7046, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.7628, 2022b.
Randriatsara, H. H.-R. H., Hu, Z., Xu, X., Ayugi, B., Sian, K. T. C. L. K., Mumo, R., Ongoma, V., and Holtanova, E.: Performance evaluation of CMIP6 HighResMIP models in simulating precipitation over Madagascar, Int. J. Climatol., 43, 5401–5421, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.8153, 2023.
Randriatsara, H. H.-R. H., Holtanová, E., Rizwan, K., Babaousmail, H., Rabezanahary, M. F. T., Posset, K. R., Alupot, D., and Brian Odhiambo, A.: Historical changes in drought characteristics and its impact on vegetation cover over Madagascar, Version v3, Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15584300, 2025.
Rigden, A., Golden, C., Chan, D., and Huybers, P.: Climate change linked to drought in Southern Madagascar, npj Climate and Atmospheric Science, 7, 41, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41612-024-00583-8, 2024.
Rouse Jr., J. W., Haas, R. H., Schell, J. A., and Deering, D. W.; Monitoring Vegetation Systems in the Great Plains with ERTS, in: Proceedings of the Third Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1 Symposium, NASA, Goddard Space Flight Center, 1, 309–317, https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19740022614 (last access: 8 January 2024), 1974.
Shalishe, A., Bhowmick, A., and Elias, K.: Meteorological drought monitoring based on satellite CHIRPS product over Gamo Zone, Southern Ethiopia, Adv. Meteorol., 2022, 1–13, https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/9323263, 2022.
Sharma, M., Bangotra, P., Gautam, A. S., and Gautam, S.: Sensitivity of normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) to land surface temperature, soil moisture and precipitation over district Gautam Buddh Nagar, UP, India, Stoch. Env. Res. Risk A., 36, 1779–1789, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-021-02066-1, 2022.
Sheffield, J., Wood, E. F., and Roderick, M. L.: Little change in global drought over the past 60 years, Nature, 491, 435–438, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11575, 2012.
Smit, H. J., Metzger, M. J., and Ewert, F.: Spatial distribution of grassland productivity and land use in Europe, Agr. Syst., 98, 208–219, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2008.07.004, 2008.
Staten, P. W., Grise, K. M., Davis, S. M., Karnauskas, K. B., Waugh, D. W., Maycock, A. C., Fu, Q., Cook, K., Adam, O., Simpson, I. R., Allen, R. J., Rosenlof, K., Chen, G., Ummenhofer, C. C., Quan, X.-W., Kossin, J. P., Davis, N. A., and Son, Seok-W.: Tropical widening: From global variations to regional impacts, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 101, E897–E904, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-19-0047.1, 2020.
Sun, J., Wang, X., Chen, A., Ma, Y., Cui, M., and Shilong, P.: NDVI indicated characteristics of vegetation cover change in China's metropolises over the last three decades, Environ. Monit. Assess., 179, 1–14, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1715-x, 2011.
Svoboda, M. D. and Fuchs, B. A.: Handbook of drought indicators and indices, Drought Water Crises: Integrating Science, Management, and Policy, 1st edn., edited by: Wilhite, D. and Pulwarty, R. S., CRC Press, 155–208, https://doi.org/10.1201/b22009, 2017.
Tall, M., Sylla, M. B., Dajuma, A., Almazroui, M., Houteta, D. N. K., Klutse, N. A. B., Dosio, A., Lennard, C., Driouech, F., Diedhiou, A., and Giorgi, F.: Drought variability, changes and hot spots across the African continent during the historical period (1928–2017), Int. J. Climatol., 43, 7795–7818, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.8293, 2023.
Thi, N. Q., Govind, A., Le, M.-H., Linh, N. T., Anh, T. T. M., Hai, N. K., and Ha, T. V.: Spatiotemporal characterization of droughts and vegetation response in Northwest Africa from 1981 to 2020, The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Sciences, 26, 393–401, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrs.2023.05.006, 2023.
Tian, F., Fensholt, R., Verbesselt, J., Grogan, K., Horion, S., and Wang, Y.: Evaluating temporal consistency of long-term global NDVI datasets for trend analysis, Remote Sens. Environ., 163, 326–340, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2015.03.014, 2015.
Tladi, T. M., Ndambuki, J. M., and Salim, R. W.: Meteorological drought monitoring in the Upper Olifants sub-basin, South Africa, Phys. Chem. Earth, 128, 103273, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2022.103273, 2022.
Thom, H. C. S.: A note on the gamma distribution, Mon. Weather Rev., 86, 117–122, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1958)086<0117:ANOTGD>2.0.CO;2, 1958.
Udmale, P., Ichikawa, Y., Manandhar, S., Ishidaira, H., and Kiem, A.: Farmers' perception of drought impacts, local adaptation and administrative mitigation measures in Maharashtra State, India, Int. J. Disast. Risk Re., 10, 250–269, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2014.09.011, 2014.
Vicente-Serrano, S. M., Gouveia, C., Camarero, J. J., Beguería, S., Trigo, R., López-Moreno, J. I., Azorín-Molina, C., Pasho, E., Lorenzo-Lacruz, J., Revuelto, J., Sanchez-Lorenzo, A., Garcia-Cediel, E., Ramos, P., and Lamela, M.: Response of vegetation to drought time-scales across global land biomes, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 110, 52–57, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1207068110, 2013.
Vicente-Serrano, S. M., Domínguez-Castro, F., Reig, F., Tomas-Burguera, M., Peña-Angulo, D., Latorre, B., Beguería, S., Rabanaque, I., Noguera, I., Lorenzo-Lacruz, J., and El Kenawy, A.: A global drought monitoring system and dataset based on ERA5 reanalysis: A focus on crop-growing regions, Geosci. Data J., 10, 505–518, https://doi.org/10.1002/gdj3.178, 2022.
Wilhite, D. A. (Ed.): Drought as a natural hazard: Concepts and definitions, in: Drought, A Global Assessment, Routledge, London, UK, I, 3–18, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315830896, 2000.
Wilks, D. S.: Statistical Methods in the Atmospheric Sciences, Vol. 91 of International Geophysics Series, Academic Press, Burlington, USA, 627 pp., ISBN: 0127519661, 2006.
Wright, J. S., Fu, R., Worden, J. R., Chakraborty, S., Clinton, N. E., Risi, C., Sun, Y., and Yin, L.: Rainforest-initiated wet season onset over the southern Amazon, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 114, 8481–8486, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1621516114, 2017.
Xian, T., Xia, J., Wei, W., Zhang, Z., Wang, R., Wang, L. P., and Ma, Y. F.: Is Hadley Cell expanding?, Atmosphere, 12, 1699, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12121699, 2021.
Yao, N., Li, Y., Lei, T., and Peng, L.: Drought evolution, severity and trends in mainland China over 1961–2013, Sci. Total Environ., 616–617, 73–89, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.327, 2018.
Zhang, M., Wang, K., Liu, H., Yue, Y., Ren, Y., Chen, Y., Zhang, C., and Deng, Z.: Vegetation inter-annual variation responses to climate variation in different geomorphic zones of the Yangtze River Basin, China, Ecol. Indic., 152, 110357, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2023.110357, 2023.
Zhao, Z., Zhang, Y., Liu, L. S., and Hu, Z.: The impact of drought on vegetation conditions within the Damqu River Basin, Yangtze River Source Region, China, PLoS One, 13, e0202966, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0202966, 2018.
Short summary
This study aims to analyze the spatiotemporal characteristics of drought (duration, frequency, severity, intensity) over Madagascar during 1981–2022 by using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI-3, SPI-6, and SPI-12). Additionally, impacts of drought on vegetation over the studied area were assessed based on an evaluation of the relationship between SPI and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) during 2000–2022.
This study aims to analyze the spatiotemporal characteristics of drought (duration, frequency,...
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint