Articles | Volume 22, issue 12
https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-3831-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-3831-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Brief communication
| 
29 Nov 2022
Brief communication |
| 29 Nov 2022
| 29 Nov 2022
Brief communication: Critical infrastructure impacts of the 2021 mid-July western European flood event
Elco E. Koks
Institute for Environmental Studies, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, the Netherlands
Oxford Programme for Sustainable Infrastructure Systems, Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
Kees C. H. van Ginkel
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Deltares, Delft, the Netherlands
Institute for Environmental Studies, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, the Netherlands
Margreet J. E. van Marle
Deltares, Delft, the Netherlands
Anne Lemnitzer
University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
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- Optimizing emergency service facilities location-allocation decision under transportation network destruction uncertainty D. Yu et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cam.2026.117696
- Resilience of transportation infrastructure networks to road failures J. Wassmer et al. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0165839
- Effectiveness of Various Protection Works to Minimize Scour Downstream of a Piano Key Weir M. Panthi & B. Crookston https://doi.org/10.1061/JIDEDH.IRENG-10613
- Ceramics Affected by Floods: Insights from the First Response to Conservation Treatment J. Wagner et al. https://doi.org/10.4000/145ta
- A Novel Optimized Hybrid VMD-PCA-XGBoost Model for Forecasting Precipitation: Exemplified by the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Study Region in China Q. Kong et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/JSTARS.2025.3586351
- Post-Flood Resilience Assessment of July 2021 Flood in Western Germany and Henan, China B. Manandhar et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12030625
- A regional-scale approach to assessing non-residential building, transportation and cropland exposure in Central Asia C. Scaini et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-355-2024
- Enhancing Flood Risk Management: A Comprehensive Review on Flood Early Warning Systems with Emphasis on Numerical Modeling D. Fernández-Nóvoa et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101408
- Evaluation of the high-energy flood of mid-July 2021 as a morphologic driver in the anthropogenically developed Ahr Valley, Germany, in interaction with infrastructures S. Wolf et al. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-024-00860-6
- Alternative rainfall storylines for the Western European July 2021 floods from ensemble boosting V. Thompson et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02386-y
- Decadal to centennial extreme precipitation disaster gaps — Long-term variability and implications for extreme value modelling J. Zeder & E. Fischer https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2023.100636
- The skill of statistical downscaling in future climate with high-resolution climate models as pseudo-reality S. Mendoza Paz & P. Willems https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2023.101477
- Multi-decade analysis of flood risks to community infrastructure in Philadelphia Y. Son et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2025.105825
- A probabilistic modeling and simulation framework for power grid flood risk assessment P. Asaridis et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2025.105353
- Selection of Elevation Models for Flood Inundation Map Generation in Small Urban Stream: Case Study of Anyang Stream . Chanjin Jeong et al. https://doi.org/10.46604/aiti.2023.12000
- Teamwork without talking: distributed system estimates maintain approximately centralized control of smart urban drainage systems during communications outages T. Dantzer & B. Kerkez https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wroa.2024.100287
- Causes of the exceptionally high number of fatalities in the Ahr valley, Germany, during the 2021 flood B. Rhein & H. Kreibich https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-581-2025
- Unravelling the drivers of the April–May 2024 extreme precipitation event in Rio Grande do Sul A. Pérez-Alarcón et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2026.108773
- Risk social contracts: Exploring responsibilities through the lens of citizens affected by flooding in Germany in 2021 J. Ommer et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2024.100315
- Cataloging and Testing Flood Risk Management Measures to Increase the Resilience of Critical Infrastructure Networks R. Schotten & D. Bachmann https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7050117
- Quantifying climate risks to infrastructure systems: A comparative review of developments across infrastructure sectors J. Verschuur et al. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000331
- Geo-Hydrological Hazard Impacts, Vulnerability and Perception in Bujumbura (Burundi): A High-Resolution Field-Based Assessment in a Sprawling City J. Nsabimana et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12101876
- Energy Resilience in Telecommunication Networks: A Comprehensive Review of Strategies and Challenges A. Cabrera-Tobar et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16186633
- How uncertain are precipitation and peak flow estimates for the July 2021 flooding event? M. Saadi et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-159-2023
- The extraordinary Zhengzhou flood of 7/20, 2021: How extreme weather and human response compounding to the disaster X. Guo et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2022.104168
- The impacts of extreme weather events on health services and systems: A systematic review of reviews M. Valente et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2025.106049
- Subgrid Model of Water Storage in Paddy Fields for a Grid-Based Distributed Rainfall–Runoff Model and Assessment of Paddy Field Dam Effects on Flood Control Y. Nihei et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16020255
- Subgrid Model of Fluid Force Acting on Buildings for Three-Dimensional Flood Inundation Simulations R. Kubota et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15173166
- Data for critical infrastructure network modelling of natural hazard impacts: Needs and influence on model characteristics R. Schotten et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rcns.2024.01.002
- Exposure and physical vulnerability to geo-hydrological hazards in rural environments: A field-based assessment in East Africa J. Sekajugo et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2024.104282
- Impact of effective crisis management on post-disaster destination image and tourist travel intentions Y. Wang & S. Phoong https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2025.2559245
- The 2021 extreme rainfall in Gävle, Sweden: impacts on municipal welfare services and actions towards more resilient premises and operations E. Glaas et al. https://doi.org/10.2166/nh.2024.107
- A dataset of floating debris accumulation at bridges after July 2021 flood in Germany and Belgium S. Erpicum et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-024-03907-8
- A multi-disciplinary analysis of the exceptional flood event of July 2021 in central Europe – Part 1: Event description and analysis S. Mohr et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-525-2023
- Bridging Geo-Data and Natural Gas Pipeline Design Standards: A Systematic Review of BIM-GIS Integration for Natural Gas Pipeline Asset Management S. Demir & T. Yomralioglu https://doi.org/10.3390/en17102306
- Climate Risk and Corporate Rescues A. Gözlügöl https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4658857
- Evidence of Brazilian water utilities’ interest in index-based insurance for floods and droughts G. da Silva et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2025.2596266
- Integrating Critical Infrastructure Networks into Flood Risk Management R. Schotten & D. Bachmann https://doi.org/10.3390/su15065475
- A fast high resolution distributed hydrological model for forecasting, climate scenarios and digital twin applications using wflow_sbm R. Imhoff et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2024.106099
- Changing dynamics of Western European summertime cut‐off lows: A case study of the July 2021 flood event V. Thompson et al. https://doi.org/10.1002/asl.1260
- Tracing online flood conversations across borders: a watershed-level analysis of geo-social media topics during the 2021 European flood S. Dujardin et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-2351-2025
- Evaluation of Social Vulnerability to Flood Hazard in Basilicata Region (Southern Italy) I. Lapietra et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15061175
- Evaluating the spatial application of multivariable flood damage models R. Paulik et al. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfr3.12934
- The impact of the 2021 flood on the outpatient care in the North Rhine region, Germany: a cross-sectional study L. Wiesehahn & A. Kaifie https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-17279-y
- Validated probabilistic approach to estimate flood direct impacts on the population and assets on European coastlines E. Duo et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-13-2025
- Towards an open pipeline for the detection of critical infrastructure from satellite imagery—a case study on electrical substations in The Netherlands J. De Plaen et al. https://doi.org/10.1088/2634-4505/ad63c9
- Identifying assets exposed to physical climate risk: A decision-support methodology J. Bertrand et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2024.109355
- Ensuring/insuring resilient energy system infrastructure K. Lonergan et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10669-023-09928-9
- The Vulnerability and Resilience of Drinking Water Systems to Extreme Weather Events and Future Climate Change G. Howard et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-026-00524-y
- A conceptual model for the estimation of flood damage to power grids P. Asaridis & D. Molinari https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-61-1-2023
- Mortality reduction despite changing climate extremes requires better understanding of human behavioral response to warnings P. Bubeck et al. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ae034f
- Barriers and facilitators to the utilisation of point-of-use water treatment systems during and immediately following flood-related disasters: a scoping review protocol R. Johnson et al. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2025-115870
- Impact of extreme weather events on manufacturing productivity: Evidence from typhoon shocks in China M. Shao et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.irfa.2025.104624
- Flood Peaks and Geomorphic Processes in an Ephemeral Mediterranean Stream: Torrent de Sant Jordi (Pollença, Mallorca) M. Grimalt-Gelabert & J. Rosselló-Geli https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology10070152
- Review article: Physical vulnerability database for critical infrastructure hazard risk assessments – a systematic review and data collection S. Nirandjan et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-4341-2024
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- Multi-level network hardening for resilient distribution systems under extreme rainfall considering decision-dependent uncertainty T. Chen et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2026.111768
- Extreme and compound events in lakes R. Woolway et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-025-00710-w
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- Feasibility of telemedicine in civil protection: a prospective observational study during a music festival A. Müller et al. https://doi.org/10.5847/wjem.j.1920-8642.2025.027
- When, at what speed, and how? Resilient transformation of the Vesdre river basin (Belgium) following the 2021 floods M. de Goër de Herve & W. Pot https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-024-00928-3
76 citations as recorded by crossref.
- Geomorphic changes after the 2021 Central European flood in the Ahr Valley by LiDAR-based differences V. Steinritz et al. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-024-00893-x
- Optimizing emergency service facilities location-allocation decision under transportation network destruction uncertainty D. Yu et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cam.2026.117696
- Resilience of transportation infrastructure networks to road failures J. Wassmer et al. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0165839
- Effectiveness of Various Protection Works to Minimize Scour Downstream of a Piano Key Weir M. Panthi & B. Crookston https://doi.org/10.1061/JIDEDH.IRENG-10613
- Ceramics Affected by Floods: Insights from the First Response to Conservation Treatment J. Wagner et al. https://doi.org/10.4000/145ta
- A Novel Optimized Hybrid VMD-PCA-XGBoost Model for Forecasting Precipitation: Exemplified by the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Study Region in China Q. Kong et al. https://doi.org/10.1109/JSTARS.2025.3586351
- Post-Flood Resilience Assessment of July 2021 Flood in Western Germany and Henan, China B. Manandhar et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12030625
- A regional-scale approach to assessing non-residential building, transportation and cropland exposure in Central Asia C. Scaini et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-355-2024
- Enhancing Flood Risk Management: A Comprehensive Review on Flood Early Warning Systems with Emphasis on Numerical Modeling D. Fernández-Nóvoa et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101408
- Evaluation of the high-energy flood of mid-July 2021 as a morphologic driver in the anthropogenically developed Ahr Valley, Germany, in interaction with infrastructures S. Wolf et al. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-024-00860-6
- Alternative rainfall storylines for the Western European July 2021 floods from ensemble boosting V. Thompson et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02386-y
- Decadal to centennial extreme precipitation disaster gaps — Long-term variability and implications for extreme value modelling J. Zeder & E. Fischer https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2023.100636
- The skill of statistical downscaling in future climate with high-resolution climate models as pseudo-reality S. Mendoza Paz & P. Willems https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2023.101477
- Multi-decade analysis of flood risks to community infrastructure in Philadelphia Y. Son et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2025.105825
- A probabilistic modeling and simulation framework for power grid flood risk assessment P. Asaridis et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2025.105353
- Selection of Elevation Models for Flood Inundation Map Generation in Small Urban Stream: Case Study of Anyang Stream . Chanjin Jeong et al. https://doi.org/10.46604/aiti.2023.12000
- Teamwork without talking: distributed system estimates maintain approximately centralized control of smart urban drainage systems during communications outages T. Dantzer & B. Kerkez https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wroa.2024.100287
- Causes of the exceptionally high number of fatalities in the Ahr valley, Germany, during the 2021 flood B. Rhein & H. Kreibich https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-581-2025
- Unravelling the drivers of the April–May 2024 extreme precipitation event in Rio Grande do Sul A. Pérez-Alarcón et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2026.108773
- Risk social contracts: Exploring responsibilities through the lens of citizens affected by flooding in Germany in 2021 J. Ommer et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2024.100315
- Cataloging and Testing Flood Risk Management Measures to Increase the Resilience of Critical Infrastructure Networks R. Schotten & D. Bachmann https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities7050117
- Quantifying climate risks to infrastructure systems: A comparative review of developments across infrastructure sectors J. Verschuur et al. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000331
- Geo-Hydrological Hazard Impacts, Vulnerability and Perception in Bujumbura (Burundi): A High-Resolution Field-Based Assessment in a Sprawling City J. Nsabimana et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12101876
- Energy Resilience in Telecommunication Networks: A Comprehensive Review of Strategies and Challenges A. Cabrera-Tobar et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16186633
- How uncertain are precipitation and peak flow estimates for the July 2021 flooding event? M. Saadi et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-159-2023
- The extraordinary Zhengzhou flood of 7/20, 2021: How extreme weather and human response compounding to the disaster X. Guo et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2022.104168
- The impacts of extreme weather events on health services and systems: A systematic review of reviews M. Valente et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2025.106049
- Subgrid Model of Water Storage in Paddy Fields for a Grid-Based Distributed Rainfall–Runoff Model and Assessment of Paddy Field Dam Effects on Flood Control Y. Nihei et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16020255
- Subgrid Model of Fluid Force Acting on Buildings for Three-Dimensional Flood Inundation Simulations R. Kubota et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15173166
- Data for critical infrastructure network modelling of natural hazard impacts: Needs and influence on model characteristics R. Schotten et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rcns.2024.01.002
- Exposure and physical vulnerability to geo-hydrological hazards in rural environments: A field-based assessment in East Africa J. Sekajugo et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2024.104282
- Impact of effective crisis management on post-disaster destination image and tourist travel intentions Y. Wang & S. Phoong https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2025.2559245
- The 2021 extreme rainfall in Gävle, Sweden: impacts on municipal welfare services and actions towards more resilient premises and operations E. Glaas et al. https://doi.org/10.2166/nh.2024.107
- A dataset of floating debris accumulation at bridges after July 2021 flood in Germany and Belgium S. Erpicum et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-024-03907-8
- A multi-disciplinary analysis of the exceptional flood event of July 2021 in central Europe – Part 1: Event description and analysis S. Mohr et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-525-2023
- Bridging Geo-Data and Natural Gas Pipeline Design Standards: A Systematic Review of BIM-GIS Integration for Natural Gas Pipeline Asset Management S. Demir & T. Yomralioglu https://doi.org/10.3390/en17102306
- Climate Risk and Corporate Rescues A. Gözlügöl https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4658857
- Evidence of Brazilian water utilities’ interest in index-based insurance for floods and droughts G. da Silva et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2025.2596266
- Integrating Critical Infrastructure Networks into Flood Risk Management R. Schotten & D. Bachmann https://doi.org/10.3390/su15065475
- A fast high resolution distributed hydrological model for forecasting, climate scenarios and digital twin applications using wflow_sbm R. Imhoff et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2024.106099
- Changing dynamics of Western European summertime cut‐off lows: A case study of the July 2021 flood event V. Thompson et al. https://doi.org/10.1002/asl.1260
- Tracing online flood conversations across borders: a watershed-level analysis of geo-social media topics during the 2021 European flood S. Dujardin et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-2351-2025
- Evaluation of Social Vulnerability to Flood Hazard in Basilicata Region (Southern Italy) I. Lapietra et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15061175
- Evaluating the spatial application of multivariable flood damage models R. Paulik et al. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfr3.12934
- The impact of the 2021 flood on the outpatient care in the North Rhine region, Germany: a cross-sectional study L. Wiesehahn & A. Kaifie https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-17279-y
- Validated probabilistic approach to estimate flood direct impacts on the population and assets on European coastlines E. Duo et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-13-2025
- Towards an open pipeline for the detection of critical infrastructure from satellite imagery—a case study on electrical substations in The Netherlands J. De Plaen et al. https://doi.org/10.1088/2634-4505/ad63c9
- Identifying assets exposed to physical climate risk: A decision-support methodology J. Bertrand et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2024.109355
- Ensuring/insuring resilient energy system infrastructure K. Lonergan et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10669-023-09928-9
- The Vulnerability and Resilience of Drinking Water Systems to Extreme Weather Events and Future Climate Change G. Howard et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-026-00524-y
- A conceptual model for the estimation of flood damage to power grids P. Asaridis & D. Molinari https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-61-1-2023
- Mortality reduction despite changing climate extremes requires better understanding of human behavioral response to warnings P. Bubeck et al. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ae034f
- Barriers and facilitators to the utilisation of point-of-use water treatment systems during and immediately following flood-related disasters: a scoping review protocol R. Johnson et al. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2025-115870
- Impact of extreme weather events on manufacturing productivity: Evidence from typhoon shocks in China M. Shao et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.irfa.2025.104624
- Flood Peaks and Geomorphic Processes in an Ephemeral Mediterranean Stream: Torrent de Sant Jordi (Pollença, Mallorca) M. Grimalt-Gelabert & J. Rosselló-Geli https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology10070152
- Review article: Physical vulnerability database for critical infrastructure hazard risk assessments – a systematic review and data collection S. Nirandjan et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-24-4341-2024
- Analysis of Self-Rescue Possibilities for Pedestrians in the Aftermath of Destabilization during a Flood Event X. Guo et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16091218
- Turning regret into future disaster preparedness with no regrets J. Ommer et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-2929-2025
- Spatial counterfactuals to explore disastrous flooding B. Merz et al. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ad22b9
- Stable isotope trends in precipitation and extreme climate indicators: insights from Berlin and the Lusatian Lignite Mining District, Germany A. Gädeke et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-025-05697-4
- Expert insights into the health and societal risks of a potential AMOC collapse in Europe: Focus on Germany J. Mirow & S. Wheat https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000735
- Unsupervised multimodal graph-based model for geo-social analysis E. Jalilian & B. Resch https://doi.org/10.1007/s10489-026-07175-4
- Climate Risk and Corporate Rescues A. Gözlügöl https://doi.org/10.1007/s40804-025-00349-6
- Applications of Advanced Technologies in the Development of Urban Flood Models Y. Yan et al. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15040622
- Actor-landscapes as visual canvas for identifying, representing, and aligning stakeholders M. Quitzau & B. Hoffmann https://doi.org/10.3389/fbuil.2023.1105544
- Multi-level network hardening for resilient distribution systems under extreme rainfall considering decision-dependent uncertainty T. Chen et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2026.111768
- Extreme and compound events in lakes R. Woolway et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-025-00710-w
- Scale‐dependent blending of ensemble rainfall nowcasts and numerical weather prediction in the open‐source pysteps library R. Imhoff et al. https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.4461
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Saved (final revised paper)
Latest update: 09 Jun 2026
Short summary
This study provides an overview of the impacts to critical infrastructure and how recovery has progressed after the July 2021 flood event in Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands. The results show that Germany and Belgium were particularly affected, with many infrastructure assets severely damaged or completely destroyed. This study helps to better understand how infrastructure can be affected by flooding and can be used for validation purposes for future studies.
This study provides an overview of the impacts to critical infrastructure and how recovery has...
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Final-revised paper
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