Beck, J. and Bousquet, O.: Using gap-filling radars in mountainous regions to complement a national radar network: Improvements in multiple-Doppler wind syntheses, J. Appl. Meteorol. Clim., 52, 1836–1850,
https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-12-0187.1, 2013.
a
Berthet, C., Dessens, J., and Sanchez, J. L.: Regional and yearly variations of hail frequency and intensity in France, Atmos. Res., 100, 391–400,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2010.10.008, 2011.
a,
b,
c,
d
Berthet, C., Wesolek, E., Dessens, J., and Sanchez, J. L.: Extreme hail day climatology in Southwestern France, Atmos. Res., 123, 139–150,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2012.10.007, 2013.
a,
b
Bousquet, O., Tabary, P., and Parent-du Châtelet, J.: Observation opérationnelle du vent 3D dans les nuagesà partir des radars du réseau Aramis, La Météorologie 61, 41–51,
https://doi.org/10.4267/2042/17789, 2008.
a
Brooks, H. E., Lee, J. W., and Craven, J. P.: The spatial distribution of severe thunderstorm and tornado environments from global reanalysis data, Atmos. Res., 67, 73–94,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00045-0, 2003.
a
Cantat, O.: Analyse critique sur les tendances pluviométriques au 20eme siècle en Basse-Normandie: Réfléxions sur la fiabilité des données et le changement climatique, Climatologie, 1, 11–32,
https://doi.org/10.4267/climatologie.963, 2004.
a
CDS: ERA5-Land hourly data from 1981 to present, available at:
https://cds.climate.copernicus.eu/cdsapp#!/dataset/reanalysis-era5-land?tab=form, last access: 14 February 2021. a
Chaboureau, J.-P., Chédin, A., and Scott, N. A.: Relationship between sea surface temperature, vertical dynamics, and the vertical distribution of atmospheric water vapor inferred from TOVS observations, Geophys. Res., 103, 23173–23180,
https://doi.org/10.1029/98JD02019, 1998.
a
Champeaux, J., Laurantin, O., Mercier, B., Mounier, F., Lassegues, P., and Tabary, P.: Quantitative precipitation estimations using rain gauges and radar networks: inventory and prospects at Meteo-France, in: WMO Joint Meeting of CGS Expert Team on Surface-based Remotely-sensed Observations and CIMO Expert Team on Operational Remote Sensing, vol. 5, 1–11, available at:
https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/OSY/Meetings/ET-SBRSO_ET-RSO-2011/DocPlan/INF.3.3.2_Report_METEOFRANCE_QPE.pdf
(last access: 14 February 2021), 2011. a
Cintineo, J. L., Smith, T. M., Lakshmanan, V., Brooks, H. E., and Ortega, K. L.: An objective high-resolution hail climatology of the contiguous United States, Weather Forecast., 27, 1235–1248,
https://doi.org/10.1175/WAF-D-11-00151.1, 2012.
a
Deepen, J.: Schadenmodellierung extremer Hagelereignisse in Deutschland, MS thesis, Institut für Landschaftsökologie der Westfälischen Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Münster, Germany, available at:
https://www.uni-muenster.de/imperia/md/content/landschaftsoekologie/klima/pdf/2006_deepen_dipl.pdf
(last access: 14 February 2021), 2006. a
Dessens, J.: Hail in Southwestern France. I: Hailfall Characteristics and Hailstrom Environment, J. Clim. Appl. Meteorol., 25, 35–47,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1986)025<0035:HISFIH>2.0.CO;2, 1986.
a,
b,
c,
d,
e,
f
Dessens, J., Berthet, C., and Sanchez, J.: Change in hailstone size distributions with an increase in the melting level height, Atmos. Res., 158, 245–253,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2014.07.004, 2015.
a,
b
DeutscheRück: Sturmdokumentation 2012 Deutschland, Tech. rep., Deutsche Rückversicherung, available at:
https://www.deutscherueck.de/fileadmin/user_upload/WEB_Sturmdoku_2012.pdf
(last access: 14 February 2021), 2013. a
Dotzek, N., Groenemeijer, P., Feuerstein, B., and Holzer, A. M.: Overview of ESSL's severe convective storms research using the European Severe Weather Database ESWD, Atmos. Res., 93, 575–586,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.020, 2009.
a
Eccel, E., Cau, P., Riemann-Campe, K., and Biasioli, F.: Quantitative hail monitoring in an alpine area: 35-year climatology and links with atmospheric variables, Int. J. Climatol., 32, 503–517, 2012.
a,
b
Figueras i Ventura, J., Boumahmoud, A.-A., Fradon, B., Dupuy, P., and Tabary, P.: Long-term monitoring of French polarimetric radar data quality and evaluation of several polarimetric quantitative precipitation estimators in ideal conditions for operational implementation at C-band, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 138, 2212–2228,
https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.1934, 2012.
a
Fluck, E.: Hail statistics for European countries, PhD thesis, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany, available at:
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/74b5/2e00fd4d299e40011d73aa596c6846212252.pdf
(last access: 14 February 2021), 2018.
a,
b,
c,
d
Fouillet, A., Rey, G., Wagner, V., Laaidi, K., Empereur-Bissonnet, P., Le Tertre, A., Frayssinet, P., Bessemoulin, P., Laurent, F., De Crouy-Chanel, P., et al.: Has the impact of heat waves on mortality changed in France since the European heat wave of summer 2003? A study of the 2006 heat wave, Int. J. Epidemiol., 37, 309–317,
https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dym253, 2008.
a
Fraile, R., Castro, A., and Sánchez, J. L.: Analysis of hailstone size distributions from a hailpad network, Atmos. Res., 28, 311–326,
https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-8095(92)90015-3, 1992.
a
Fraile, R., Berthet, C., Dessens, J., and Sánchez, J. L.: Return periods of severe hailfalls computed from hailpad data, Atmos. Res., 67, 189–202,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00051-6, 2003.
a,
b
Gudd, M.: Gewitter und Gewitterschäden im südlichen hessischen Berg-und Beckenland und im Rhein-Main-Tiefland 1881 bis 1980: eine Auswertung mit Hilfe von Schadensdaten, PhD thesis, University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany, available at:
https://openscience.ub.uni-mainz.de/handle/20.500.12030/3428
(last access: 14 February 2021), 2003. a
Hermida, L., Sánchez, J. L., López, L., Berthet, C., Dessens, J., García-Ortega, E., and Merino, A.: Climatic trends in hail precipitation in France: spatial, altitudinal, and temporal variability, Sci. World J., 2013, 494971,
https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/494971, 2013.
a,
b,
c
Hermida, L., López, L., Merino, A., Berthet, C., García-Ortega, E., Sánchez, J. L., and Dessens, J.: Hailfall in Southwest France: Relationship with precipitation, trends and wavelet analysis, Atmos. Res., 156, 174–188,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2015.01.005, 2015.
a
Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Hirahara, S., Horányi, A., Muñoz-Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., Schepers, D., and Simmons, A.: The ERA5 global reanalysis, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 146, 1999–2049,
https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3803, 2020.
a,
b
Hohl, R.: Relationship between hailfall intensity and hail damage on ground, determined by radar and lightning observations, PhD hesis, Departement of Geography, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland, available at:
https://doc.rero.ch/record/5136/files/1_HohlRM.pdf (last access: 14 February 2021), 2001. a
Hohl, R., Schiesser, H.-H., and Aller, D.: Hailfall: the relationship between radar-derived hail kinetic energy and hail damage to buildings, Atmos. Res., 63, 177–207,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-8095(02)00059-5, 2002.
a
Houze J, R. A.: Cloud dynamics, Academic Press, available at:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/bookseries/international-geophysics/vol/104/suppl/C
(last access: 14 February 2021), 2014. a
Jenkner, J., Sprenger, M., Schwenk, I., Schwierz, C., Dierer, S., and Leuenberger, D.: Detection and climatology of fronts in a high-resolution model reanalysis over the Alps, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 17, 1–18,
https://doi.org/10.1002/met.142, 2010.
a
Johnson, A. W. and Sugden, K. E.: Evaluation of sounding-derived thermodynamic and wind-related parameters associated with large hail events, Electron. J. Severe Storms Metereol., 9, 1–42, 2014. a
Johnson, J., MacKeen, P. L., Witt, A., Mitchell, E. D. W., Stumpf, G. J., Eilts, M. D., and Thomas, K. W.: The storm cell identification and tracking algorithm: An enhanced WSR-88D algorithm, Weather Forecast., 13, 263–276,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0434(1998)013<0263:TSCIAT>2.0.CO;2, 1998.
a
Junghänel, T., Brendel, C., Winterrath, T., and Walter, A.: Towards a radar- and observation-based hail climatology for Germany, Meteorol. Z., 25, 435–445,
https://doi.org/10.1127/metz/2016/0734, 2016.
a,
b
Kaltenböck, R., Diendorfer, G., and Dotzek, N.: Evaluation of thunderstorm indices from ECMWF analyses, lightning data and severe storm reports, Atmos. Res., 93, 381–396,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.11.005, 2009.
a
Kirshbaum, D. J., Adler, B., Kalthoff, N., Barthlott, C., and Serafin, S.: Moist orographic convection: Physical mechanisms and links to surface-exchange processes, Atmosphere, 9, 80,
https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos9030080, 2018.
a,
b
Koebele, D.: Analyse von Konvergenzbereichen bei Hagelereignissen stromab von Mittelgebirgen anhand von COSMO-Modellsimulationen, MS thesis, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany, available at:
https://www.imk-tro.kit.edu/download/Masterarbeit_Koebele.pdf (last access: 14 February 2021), 2014.
a,
b
Kreklow, J., Tetzlaff, B., Burkhard, B., and Kuhnt, G.: Radar-Based Precipitation Climatology in Germany – Developments, Uncertainties and Potentials, Atmosphere, 11, 217,
https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11020217, 2020.
a,
b
Kunz, M. and Puskeiler, M.: High-resolution Assessment of the Hail Hazard over Complex Terrain from Radar and Insurance Data, Meteorol. Z., 19, 427–439,
https://doi.org/10.1127/0941-2948/2010/0452, 2010.
a,
b,
c,
d,
e,
f,
g
Kunz, M., Blahak, U., Handwerker, J., Schmidberger, M., Punge, H. J., Mohr, S., Fluck, E., and Bedka, K. M.: The severe hailstorm in SW Germany on 28 July 2013: Characteristics, impacts, and meteorological conditions, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 144, 231–250,
https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3197, 2018.
a
Kunz, M., Wandel, J., Fluck, E., Baumstark, S., Mohr, S., and Schemm, S.: Ambient conditions prevailing during hail events in central Europe, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 1867–1887,
https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-1867-2020, 2020.
a,
b,
c,
d,
e
Langhans, W., Schmidli, J., Fuhrer, O., Bieri, S., and Schär, C.: Long-term simulations of thermally driven flows and orographic convection at convection-parameterizing and cloud-resolving resolutions, J. Appl. Meteorol., 52, 1490–1510, 2013. a
Lenderink, G., Van Meijgaard, E., and Selten, F.: Intense coastal rainfall in the Netherlands in response to high sea surface temperatures: analysis of the event of August 2006 from the perspective of a changing climate, Clim. Dynam., 32, 19–33,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-008-0366-x, 2009.
a
Lukach, M. and Delobbe, L.: Radar-based hail statistics over Belgium, in: 7th European Conference on Severe Storms (ECSS), 7–13 June 2013, Helsinki, Finland, 2013. a
Lukach, M., Foresti, L., Giot, O., and Delobbe, L.: Estimating the occurrence and severity of hail based on 10 years of observations from weather radar in Belgium, Meteorol. Appl., 24, 250–259,
https://doi.org/10.1002/met.1623, 2017.
a,
b
Mallafré, M. C., Ribas, T. R., del Carmen Llasat Botija, M., and Sánchez, J. L.: Improving hail identification in the Ebro Valley region using radar observations: Probability equations and warning thresholds, Atmos. Res., 93, 474–482,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.09.039, 2009.
a,
b,
c
Markowski, P. and Richardson, Y.: Mesoscale meteorology in midlatitudes, vol. 3, John Wiley, available at:
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9780470682104
(last access: 14 February 2021), 2010. a
Merino, A., García-Ortega, E., López, L., Sánchez, J., and Guerrero-Higueras, A.: Synoptic environment, mesoscale configurations and forecast parameters for hailstorms in Southwestern Europe, Atmos. Res., 122, 183–198,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2012.10.021, 2013.
a
Mohr, S., Kunz, M., and Geyer, B.: Hail potential in Europe based on a regional climate model hindcast, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 10904–10912,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL067118, 2015a.
a
Mohr, S., Kunz, M., and Keuler, K.: Development and
application of a logistic model to estimate the past and future hail potential in Germany, J. Geophys. Res., 120, 3939–3956,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JD022959, 2015b.
a
Mohr, S., Wandel, J., Lenggenhager, S., and Martius, O.: Relationship between atmospheric blocking and warm‐season thunderstorms over western and central Europe, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 145, 3040–3056,
https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3603, 2019.
a
Nisi, L., Ambrosetti, P., and Clementi, L.: Nowcasting severe convection in the Alpine region: The COALITION approach, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 140, 1684–1699,
https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2249, 2014.
a
Nisi, L., Martius, O., Hering, A., Kunz, M., and Germann, U.: Spatial and temporal distribution of hailstorms in the Alpine region: a long-term, high resolution, radar-based analysis, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 142, 1590–1604,
https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2771, 2016.
a,
b,
c,
d,
e
Nisi, L., Hering, A., Germann, U., and Martius, O.: A 15-year hail streak climatology for the Alpine region, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 144, 1429–1449,
https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3286, 2018.
a,
b,
c,
d,
e,
f,
g,
h
NOAA: Global Climate Report for Annual 2006, Tech. rep., NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information, available at:
https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/global/200713 (last access: 14 February 2021), 2007.
a,
b
NOAA: Global Climate Report for Annual 2010, Tech. rep., National Centers for Environmental Information, available at:
https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/global/201013 (last access: 14 February 2021), 2011. a
Pilorz, W. and Łupikasza, E.: Radar reflectivity signatures and possible lead times of warnings for very large hail in Poland based on data from 2007–2015, Environ. Soc. Econ. Stud., 8, 34–47,
https://doi.org/10.2478/environ-2020-0016, 2020.
a
Piper, D. and Kunz, M.: Spatiotemporal variability of lightning activity in Europe and the relation to the North Atlantic Oscillation teleconnection pattern, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 1319–1336,
https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-17-1319-2017, 2017.
a
Piper, D. A.: Untersuchung der Gewitteraktivität und der relevanten großräumigen Steuerungsmechanismen über Mittel- und Westeuropa, PhD thesis, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany,
https://doi.org/10.5445/KSP/1000072089, 2017.
a
Piper, D. A., Kunz, M., Allen, J. T., and Mohr, S.: Investigation of the temporal variability of thunderstorms in Central and Western Europe and the relation to large-scale flow and teleconnection patterns, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 145, 3644–3666,
https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3647, 2019.
a,
b,
c
Punge, H., Bedka, K., Kunz, M., and Werner, A.: A new physically based stochastic event catalog for hail in Europe, Nat. Hazards, 73, 1625–1645,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-014-1161-0, 2014.
a,
b,
c
Punge, H., Bedka, K., Kunz, M., and Reinbold, A.: Hail frequency estimation across Europe based on a combination of overshooting top detections and the ERA-INTERIM reanalysis, Atmos. Res., 198, 34–43,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2017.07.025, 2017.
a,
b
Puskeiler, M.: Radarbasierte Analyse der Hagelgefährdung in Deutschland, PhD thesis, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany, available at:
http://www.imk-tro.kit.edu/download/Dissertation_Puskeiler_Marc.pdf
(last access: 14 February 2021), 2013.
a,
b,
c,
d,
e,
f,
g,
h
Puskeiler, M., Kunz, M., and Schmidberger, M.: Hail statistics for Germany derived from single-polarization radar data, Atmos. Res., 178, 459–470,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2016.04.014, 2016.
a,
b,
c,
d,
e,
f,
g,
h,
i,
j,
k,
l,
m
Rädler, A. T., Groenemeijer, P., Faust, E., and Sausen, R.: Detecting Severe Weather Trends Using an Additive Regressive Convective Hazard Model (AR-CHaMo), J. Appl. Meteorol., 57, 569–587,
https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-17-0132.1, 2018.
a
Schemm, S., Nisi, L., Martinov, A., Leuenberger, D., and Martius, O.: On the link between cold fronts and hail in Switzerland, Atmos. Sci. Lett, 17, 315–325, 2016.
a,
b
Schmidberger, M.: Hagelgefährdung und Hagelrisiko in Deutschland basierend auf einer Kombination von Radardaten und Versicherungsdaten, PhD thesis, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany,
https://doi.org/10.5445/KSP/1000086012, 2018.
a
Schulz, W., Diendorfer, G., Pedeboy, S., and Poelman, D. R.: The European lightning location system EUCLID – Part 1: Performance analysis and validation, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 16, 595–605,
https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-16-595-2016, 2016.
a
Schuster, S. S., Blong, R. J., and Speer, M. S.: A hail climatology of the greater Sydney area and New South Wales, Australia, Int. J. Climatol., 25,
https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.1199, 2005.
a
Smith, B. T., Thompson, R. L., Grams, J. S., Broyles, C., and Brooks, H. E.: Convective modes for significant severe thunderstorms in the contiguous United States. Part I: Storm classification and climatology, Weather Forecast., 27, 1114–1135,
https://doi.org/10.1175/WAF-D-11-00115.1, 2012.
a
Smith, R. B.: The influence of mountains on the atmosphere, in: Advances in Geophysics, vol. 21, Elsevier, New York, 87–230, 1979.
a,
b
Steppeler, J., Doms, G., Schättler, U., Bitzer, H. W., Gassmann, A., Damrath, U., and Gregoric, G.: Meso-gamma scale forecasts using the nonhydrostatic model LM, Meteorol. Atmos. Phys., 82, 75–96,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00703-001-0592-9, 2003.
a
SwissRe: Sigma: Natural- and Man-made Catastrophes 2013, Tech. rep., Swiss Re Economic Research and Consulting, available at:
https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/SwisRe_2014_Natural_Catastrophes_sigma1_2014_en.pdf
(last access: 14 February 2021), 2014. a
Tabary, P., Guibert, F., Perier, L., and Parent-du Chatelet, J.: An operational triple-PRT Doppler scheme for the French radar network, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 23, 1645–1656,
https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH1923.1, 2006.
a,
b
Tabary, P., Augros, C., Champeaux, J.-L., Chèze, J.-L., Faure, D., Idziorek, D., Lorandel, R., Urban, B., and Vogt, V.: Le réseau et les produits radars de Météo-France, La Météorologie, 83, 15–27,
https://doi.org/10.4267/2042/52050, 2013.
a,
b,
c,
d,
e,
f
Taszarek, M., Brooks, H. E., and Czernecki, B.: Sounding-derived parameters associated with convective hazards in Europe, Mon. Weather Rev., 145, 1511–1528,
https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-16-0384.1, 2017.
a
Varga, J.: The Lambert conformal conic projection, Period. Polytech. Civ. Eng., 34, 153–158, 1990. a
Vinet, F.: La question du risque climatique en agriculture: le cas de la grêle en France/Climatic risk in agriculture: the case of hail falls in France, Ann. Geogr., 627–628, 592–613, 2002. a
Waldvogel, A., Federer, B., and Grimm, P.: Criteria for the detection of hail cells, J. Appl. Meteorol., 18, 12,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1979)018<1521:CFTDOH>2.0.CO;2, 1979.
a
Wapler, K., Hengstebeck, T., and Groenemeijer, P.: Mesocyclones in Central Europe as seen by radar, Atmos. Res., 168, 112–120,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2015.08.023, 2016.
a
Warren, R. A., Ramsay, H. A., Siems, S. T., Manton, M. J., Peter, J. R., Protat, A., and Pillalamarri, A.: Radar-based climatology of damaging hailstorms in Brisbane and Sydney, Australia, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 146, 505–530,
https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3693, 2020.
a
Wernli, H., Pfahl, S., Trentmann, J., and Zimmer, M.: How representative were the meteorological conditions during the COPS field experiment in summer 2007?, Meteorol. Z, 19, 619–630,
https://doi.org/10.1127/0941-2948/2010/0483, 2010.
a
Yu, N., Gaussiat, N., and Tabary, P.: Polarimetric X-band weather radars for quantitative precipitation estimation in mountainous regions, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 144, 2603–2619,
https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3366, 2018.
a
