RIM2D is a two-dimensional hydrodynamic model developed by the Hydrology Section of the Helmholtz Centre for Geosciences (GFZ) in Potsdam, Germany. It employs a raster-based approach and is specifically designed to solve the local inertia form of the Shallow Water Equations, following the methodology proposed by , which has demonstrated strong performance in flood inundation simulations . The model uses a regular grid of square cells, offering computational efficiency while preserving spatial uniformity across large areas.

The local inertia approximation enhances accuracy by including a momentum change term, distinguishing it from simpler models like the diffusive wave approach . This term reflects how flow momentum evolves over time, linking each time step to the previous one through inertia. By omitting convective acceleration terms, the formulation simplifies flux calculations by decoupling the x- and y-directions: 1F=qx12gh2,G=0qy12gh2.

These fluxes are part of the shallow water equations: 2∂U∂t+∂F∂x+∂G∂y=Sb+Sf, with the state vector and source terms defined as: 3U=hqxqy,Sb=0-gh∂z∂x-gh∂z∂y,Sf=0-σx-σy.

Here, h is the water depth [L], qx and qy are momentum components [L2/T], z is bed elevation [L], and σx, σy represent friction slopes computed using Manning’s equation. g denotes gravitational acceleration [L/T2]. This formulation balances simplicity and physical realism, capturing inertial behavior more accurately than diffusive models, while remaining computationally lighter than full dynamic solvers.

Although the explicit numerical scheme from can become unstable in near- or super-critical flow regimes or with fine grid resolutions , RIM2D incorporates the stabilization method introduced by , based on numerical diffusion. An additional automatic stability control has been introduced to keep the model stable even if the numerical diffusion is not able to capture model instabilities, which can occur in case of super-critical flow conditions . This makes the model robust across diverse hydrodynamic conditions and spatial resolutions.

RIM2D is implemented in Fortran and optimized for GPU acceleration using NVIDIA CUDA Fortran, enabling efficient simulation of high-resolution or large-domain models. It supports multi-GPU computing and is distributed as open-source software under the European Union Public License version 1.2.

In order to utilize multiple GPUs, the 2D problem domain is divided into N equal parts using a 1D domain decomposition along the longer spatial dimension (typically x- or y-direction, depending on domain aspect ratio) and evenly distributed across the N GPUs. This results in each GPU handling a horizontal or vertical “slab” of the full 2D grid. Ghost zones have been introduced to manage interactions between neighbored cells that cross GPU boundaries. These zones need to be exchanged within each iteration. In order to improve the scalability of the multi-GPU implementation, various optimizations have been applied. These include the overlapping of communication and computation whenever possible – particularly during ghost zone exchange – as well as the utilization of specialized reduction kernels tailored to the problem domain and optimized for multi-GPU usage. These optimizations significantly reduce the overhead caused by data exchange and device synchronization. However, the scaling might be impacted by load imbalances in the computation domain. The multi-GPU implementation is currently limited to a single compute node, with each GPU being controlled by a dedicated CPU thread. Additional threads are utilized to allow asynchronous reading and writing of input and output data during the simulation.

RIM2D is specifically designed for urban flood simulation considering drainage by the sewer system and infiltration. A capacity-based approach is implemented to consider the effect of urban drainage on inundation, which is highly relevant for getting realistic inundation simulations. Spatially uniform or distributed sewer capacities and infiltration rates can be provided in mm h⁻¹. The sewer capacities are applied to grid cells classified as sealed (impervious), wheres the infiltration rates are applied to non-sealed (pervious) grid cells. Each grid cell can be be completely sealed/non-sealed or contain fractions of sealed/non-sealed areas. For infiltration saturated infiltration is assumed, i.e. initially different infiltration rates at the start of the wetting of the ground are neglected.

This study focuses on Berlin, the capital of Germany, which has a population of approximately 3.89 million (as of end of 2024). The city is located in northeastern Germany along the River Spree. Berlin spans approximately 891.8 km² and has an average elevation of 34 m a.s.l. The city is characterized by a complex urban landscape with relatively flat topography . The city experiences a moderate continental climate (Köppen classification Cfb) , characterized by warm, wet summers and cold, relatively dry winters, with distinct seasonal variations, with an average annual precipitation of around 570 mm . Intense summer precipitation has caused several instances of urban pluvial flooding in recent decades, such as the event on 29–30 June 2017, which recorded up to 196.9 mm precipitation during a 24 h period . Such rainfall events, combined with Berlin’s extensive urban infrastructure, heightens its susceptibility to pluvial flooding, where heavy rainfall overwhelms drainage systems, leading to surface water accumulation. For instance, the June 2017 event led to heavy runoff that accumulated in low-lying areas, resulting in widespread flooding throughout the city . This was worsened by the city’s flat topography, which limits storm-water drainage.

This study employs the DGM1 digital elevation model (DEM) of the city Berlin, obtained from Geoportal Berlin/ATKIS®DGM , as the basis for the model setup. To further evaluate the performance of RIM2D at various spatial resolutions and to reduce the computational demand of the simulations, the DGM1 dataset was resampled to grid resolutions of dx= 2, 5, and 10 m using the averaging technique. This resampling produced raster grids containing approximately 418.9 million cells at dx= 2 m, 67 million cells at dx= 5 m, and 16.7 million cells at dx= 10 m. These numbers correspond to the full rectangular computational domain (red line in Fig.  that encloses the administrative boundary of Berlin plus a small buffer. Only cells inside the actual city mask are physically active during the simulations. Building outlines obtained from OpenStreetMap were used to remove building footprints from all three DEMs. Consequently, the building surfaces acted as closed reflective boundaries in the simulations.

Manning roughness values for the domain were assigned based on the 2020 land cover classification of Germany, which was derived from Sentinel-2 data . This classification uses atmospherically corrected Sentinel-2 imagery processed with the MAJA algorithm and made available by the EOC Geoservice of the German Aerospace Centre (DLR). It incorporates training data from reference sources such as OpenStreetMap, alongside the Sentinel-2 imagery. This land cover dataset was chosen for the study due to its relatively high spatial resolution of 10 m. Manning values of 0.04, 0.03, 0.1, 0.025, 0.035, and 0.035 [m^−1∕3 s] were assigned to the mapped land cover classes of vegetation, water bodies, forest, built-up areas, bare soil, and agricultural land, respectively.

Infiltration rates for the domain surface were determined by combining two distinct datasets. First, the soil type within the study area was classified using the dataset Umweltatlas Berlin/Bodenkundliche Kennwerte 2020, which is available for download at the cities online database, Geoportal Berlin . Saturated hydraulic conductivity values for each soil category of the first 1 m of the soil were assigned based on a thorough literature review. Next, the Imperviousness Density percentage raster, sourced from the Earth Observation component of the European Union’s Copernicus program at a resolution of dx= 10 m , was used to calculate the surface perviousness across the study domain. The final infiltration rates integrated into the model were derived by multiplying the saturated hydraulic conductivity of each cell, based on the Bodenkundliche Kennwerte 2020 product, by the surface perviousness percentage of that cell. RIM2D also allows for the integration of urban sewer drainage systems using a capacity-based approach, similar to the method applied for infiltration. This approach has been shown to effectively simulate drainage volumes, thereby reliably capturing the influence of sewer drainage on surface inundation .

The sewer capacity was estimated based on the assumption that sewer system dimensions in Germany are typically based on design rainfalls following a 2-year event of a duration of 15 min . The design rainfall values were taken from the KOSTRA database of the German Weather Service DWD. KOSTRA provides gridded data over whole Germany of precipitation and specific volume of precipitation of different return periods and durations, at a resolution of 5 km. For the 2-year return period and 15 min duration the gridded values vary slightly within the city area of Berlin in the range of 11.9 mm to 13.2, with a mean of 12.5 mm (139 L s⁻¹ ha⁻¹ specific volume). For this study the mean value was used to estimate a uniform sewer capacity (i.e. sewer design value) for Berlin based on the guide of the German Water Association DWA-A 118 , considering mean slope of the city area and mean degree of surface sealing. This evaluates a mean sewer system capacity of 21 mm h⁻¹, which was multiplied with the surface sealing in each grid cell to calculate the sewer drainage loss in the flood simulation. We also add clarification that the present simulations assume an initially empty sewer system, as no information on antecedent pipe filling was available for this event.

Although the RIM2D hydrodynamic model has been validated across a variety of flood scenarios, including both pluvial and fluvial events , this study intentionally conducts simulations in a blind manner, without parameter calibration (e.g., roughness coefficients). This choice is driven by the limited availability of validation data for the simulated event, which are chronically hard to obtain for these short term-high intensity pluvial flood events. Moreover, the focus of this study is to demonstrate the feasibility of using models like RIM2D for operational flood forecasting purposes – recognizing that model refinement and calibration is advisable for the actual use of the model in an actual operational forecast. However, due the chronical lack of calibration/validation data for this kind of events, relying on available spatial data and standard parameterizations is often the only viable option. While calibration is preferable, the common absence of calibration data and the occasional need for rapid model deployment in operational settings make using uncalibrated models a common practice. Consequently, this study presents uncalibrated simulation results without engaging in extensive model calibration efforts.

To define the precipitation input for simulating the June 2017 flood event in Berlin, rainfall radar data from the German Weather Service (DWD), known as “RADOLAN,” was employed. RADOLAN is an operational, open-access product provided by the DWD and can be obtained through its Climate Data Center (CDC). The dataset offers nationwide coverage of Germany at a spatial resolution of 1000 × 1000 m with hourly temporal resolution. For the model we use the hourly product which results in 48 hourly RADOLAN images corresponding to 29 and 30 June 2017 – spanning the spatial extent of the study area – were used as rainfall input.

Observation data critical to understanding urban pluvial flooding – such as water level measurements – are often unavailable or, at best, extremely limited . This scarcity is largely due to the short-lived and highly localized nature of intense rainfall and the resulting pluvial floods, which significantly reduces the likelihood of capturing these events through operational remote sensing platforms. Even when such events are observed, challenges remain: optical sensors are hindered by cloud cover, while radar sensors can be affected by reflections from buildings. Furthermore, the infrequency of extreme rainfall events presents an additional challenge for generating reliable pluvial flood maps for model validation. As a result, observational data from actual pluvial flood events are typically both scarce and of limited quality, making the validation of advanced urban flood models particularly difficult. In fact, many locations that are theoretically prone to pluvial flooding lack any historical records altogether .

Due to the absence of systematic observations from the 2017 flood event in Berlin, validation of the model relied solely on volunteered geographic information (VGI), including photographs and videos captured by local residents during the event. Prior studies, such as and , suggest that although VGI datasets are often limited in scope, they can nonetheless offer valuable insights for the validation of urban-scale pluvial flood models. In this study, VGI sources at 19 different spots in the city are used to assess flood extents and inundation depths simulated by RIM2D for the 2017 event. To enable a more quantitative assessment, the photos and videos that provided the clearest and most measurable indications of water depth were selected. Reference objects such as street poles, building corners, and curb stones visible in the imagery were then manually measured on-site in the city. Based on these measurements, water depths were estimated and subsequently compared to the simulated water depths produced by RIM2D at the corresponding locations.

As an additional validation step, the study incorporates the Berlin city’s official flood hazard maps, which are based on a 100-year return period rainfall event, corresponding to a uniform rainfall intensity of 100 mm h⁻¹ sustained for one hour across the entire domain. The same rainfall input is applied to the RIM2D model for consistency. The Berlin city’s official flood hazard maps, derived from expert-validated hydrodynamic simulations, provide an additional reference point for evaluating the model’s performance. Specifically, we compare flood extents and water depths from RIM2D outputs with those from the official city hazard maps. Berlin’s official flood hazard maps were developed using a coupled 1D sewer and 2D surface runoff model and were subjected to a comprehensive plausibility review by the city authorities. This validation process included a detailed assessment of simulated flood pathways and accumulation areas to identify any unrealistic flow behavior or implausible water pooling. In cases where discrepancies were identified, field inspections were carried out, and missing hydraulic features – such as barriers, channels, or culverts – were subsequently incorporated into the model. However, it is also noted in the documentation that these models were not subject to any calibration process. It should also be noted, that due to computational limitations and model constraints, the Berlin city authorities were only able to generate hazard maps for selected small catchment areas rather than for the entire city. In this study, we focus on three of those areas – Obersee, Flughafensee, and Niederschönhausen Ost – as shown in Fig. . Since RIM2D is not constrained by such computational limits and provides results for the entire Berlin area, its output rasters were clipped to match the extents of these three regions for comparison.

To compare the inundated areas from RIM2D simulations with the official city flood maps, a comprehensive set of performance metrics was employed. These metrics were calculated by assessing the maximum inundation extents from RIM2D against the corresponding official maps. Each cell in the domain was classified according to Table , with RIM2D outputs treated as simulated data and the official maps considered as observed data. Based on this classification, a confusion map was generated for each comparison, providing counts for true positives, false negatives, false positives, and true negatives. These values were then used to compute several domain-wide flood performance metrics, as defined in Table . The metrics used in this study are based on methodologies presented by and .

To evaluate the simulated water depths from RIM2D against those from the official city hazard maps, we employ two indicators: Bias and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE). The Bias is computed using the following equation: Bias=1n∑i=1n(y^i-yi) and RMSE is calculated as: RMSE=1n∑i=1n(y^i-yi)2

In both equations:

n is the total number of observations.

We begin by assessing computational performance, as simulation runtime and resource efficiency are key factors in determining the feasibility of using this technology for flood forecasting and early warning systems. Fig.  presents (a) the absolute simulation runtimes and (b) the ratio of simulated period to simulation runtime, for simulations at spatial resolutions of dx= 10, 5, and 2 m over a 48 h period during the 29–30 June 2017 flood event. Each resolution was tested using 1, 2, 4, 6, and 8 GPUs to demonstrate the performance benefits of RIM2D’s multi-GPU processing capability for large-scale domains. All GPUs used in this study were NVIDIA A100 units.

As expected, simulation runtimes increase substantially with finer resolutions. For instance, at dx= 2 m simulations for the June 2017 event (48 h simulation) require runtimes in the range of several hours, while at dx= 10 m simulations complete within minutes. Across all resolutions, increasing the number of GPUs significantly reduces runtimes, with the impact most pronounced at finer resolutions. At dx= 2 m, runtime drops from 794 min with 2 GPUs to 330 min (5.5 h) with 8 GPUs. At dx= 5 m, runtime decreases from 116 min with 1 GPU to 63 min with 2 GPUs, and further down to 34 min with 8 GPUs. For dx= 10 m, runtimes are reduced from 16 min (1 GPU) to 8 min (8 GPUs). These results highlight the importance of multi-GPU configurations, particularly at higher resolutions, to achieve runtimes that are viable for real-time flood forecasting and early warning. It is also worth noting that for high-resolution simulations (dx= 2 m) over large domains such as the state of Berlin, multi-GPU support is essential – not only for runtime efficiency but also due to the memory limitations of single-GPU setups. At this resolution, a single GPU is simply incapable of handling a simulation with such a large domain, which was also the case in this study. It should also be noted that simulations at a resolution of dx= 1 m – corresponding to approximately 2 billion cells across the domain – would require more than 8 GPUs, a level of computational resources that was not available for this study.

Another noteworthy observation from the figures is that, for the dx= 5 and 10 m configurations, increasing the number of GPUs beyond 4 yields only marginal reductions in runtime. For example, at dx= 5 m, increasing from 2 to 4 GPUs reduces the runtime from 63 to 39 min, whereas increasing from 4 to 6 GPUs results in a much smaller improvement – from 39 to 36 min. This indicates that, for simulations at dx= 5 and 10 m over the Berlin domain, using more than 4 GPUs offers limited additional benefit. A similar pattern is observed at dx= 2 m, where increasing beyond 6 GPUs provides only minor runtime gains, suggesting that more than 6 GPUs is unnecessary at this resolution. Scaling efficiency decreases beyond 4 GPUs for 5 and 10 m resolutions (and beyond 6 GPUs at dx= 2 m) primarily due to increasing inter-GPU communication overhead (ghost-zone exchange) and load imbalances caused by heterogeneous wetting/drying patterns and building masks across sub-domains. We are actively working on further improvements such as including dynamic load balancing or adaptive ghost-zone compression to push scaling efficiency higher in future RIM2D releases.

Figure b illustrates how simulation runtimes compare to the real-time duration of the flood event. At a resolution of dx= 10 m, with over 16 million cells, RIM2D runs 178 times faster than real time using a single GPU, and up to 347 times faster with 8 GPUs. At dx= 5 m (over 67 million cells), the model runs 24 times faster than real time with 1 GPU, increasing to 84 times faster with 8 GPUs. Even at the finest tested resolution (dx= 2 m, with over 418 million cells), RIM2D achieves runtimes 3.6 times faster than real time using 2 GPUs, and up to 8.7 times faster with 8 GPUs. These results highlight RIM2D’s capability to deliver real-time or faster-than-real-time performance, even at high spatial resolutions, making it highly suitable for integration into early warning systems. Its computational efficiency supports operational flood forecasting while maintaining appropriate lead times. In particular, the multi-GPU architecture of RIM2D enables high-resolution, impact-based flood simulations that allow for timely and informed emergency responses. Additionally, the estimation of secondary impact metrics – such as affected population, economic losses, risk of floating vehicles, disruption of transport networks, or exposure of critical infrastructure – can be completed in very short time periods-typically within seconds . This ensures that no significant computational burden is added during post-processing. In a real-time operational setting, updating a forecast would only require modifying the rainfall input based on the most recent radar or forecast data. The simulation would then produce updated flood and impact outputs accordingly.

The presented simulations of the June 2017 pluvial flood event in Berlin demonstrate the strong potential of integrating RIM2D into early warning systems. The obtained runtimes allow an integration into operational flood forecast systems. For example, driving RIM2D with numerical weather predictions (NWP) models, such as ICON-D2-EPS, which can provide high-resolution rainfall forecasts with lead times up to 17 h , would definitively be feasible. Additionally, the German Weather Service (DWD) provides RADALON radar-based nowcasts with lead times up to 2 h – offering higher spatial accuracy and reliability, albeit with shorter lead times. But even when driven by short-term nowcast products, RIM2D’s rapid runtimes ensure flood impact predictions can be generated and disseminated well before peak inundation occurs. This allows for timely evacuation warnings and infrastructure protection efforts, reinforcing RIM2D’s role as a powerful tool in impact-based flood early warning systems. It is also important to highlight that no specific model or hardware optimizations were applied to maximize performance in this scenario. For operational use, such optimizations would be essential and could further improve computational efficiency.

Figure  displays the same performance metrics as Fig. , but for the 1 h, 100-year return period flood simulations for the entire state of Berlin. Overall, the observed trends closely mirror those in Fig. . The key takeaway from this figure is that RIM2D’s multi-GPU processing capabilities enable the generation of high-resolution flood hazard maps (even at dx= 2 m) for the entire Berlin area in under 30 min. This represents a significant advancement compared to current practices, where flood hazard maps are typically generated only for smaller catchments within Berlin city due to computational limitations, rather than for the entire urban domain. With advanced tools such as RIM2D now available, capable of delivering high-resolution, state-scale flood simulations in operationally feasible time frames, it is highly advisable that governmental agencies and city planners begin adopting such tools – not only to enhance the accuracy and coverage of flood hazard mapping but also enable truly operational early warning systems that support faster, data-driven decision-making and more effective risk mitigation.

For the June 2017 pluvial flood event in Berlin, there were no systematically collected or officially reported hydrological observations available, such as water levels, flow rates, or inundation extents, which could be used directly for model validation. In the absence of traditional observation data, this study utilized geo-located social media content – specifically, photos and videos shared by residents during and shortly after the event – as an alternative data source for validating the RIM2D simulation. This approach follows a growing body of research demonstrating the utility of Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) for hydrological validation in urban environments where formal measurements are lacking (e.g., Drews et al., 2023).

A total of 19 locations across Berlin city were identified where social media posts provided clear visual evidence of flooding. These media were manually geo-referenced and used to evaluate the accuracy of RIM2D in terms of flood extent and, where possible, estimated water depths. To support visual comparison, simulation results from RIM2D were exported and rendered in Google Earth. This visualization technique allowed for a direct spatial overlay between the simulated flood maps and the photographic evidence. Figure  presents two representative examples: the upper panel shows flooding along Hofjägerallee, a major street that leads to the Victory Column monument in central Berlin, while the lower panel captures inundation in Yorckstraße, a key transportation corridor in the southern part of the city. These visual comparisons highlight a strong spatial alignment between observed and simulated flood extents. Additional examples are provided in Fig.  to illustrate the consistency of results across diverse urban contexts.

In addition to qualitative comparisons of flood extent, a semi-quantitative validation of water depth was carried out at 16 of the 19 locations. These sites were selected based on the presence of identifiable reference objects – such as lampposts, building facades, street curbs, and bollards – that could be used to estimate inundation depth in the shared photos and videos. Physical measurements of these objects were subsequently performed in the field to enable approximate depth estimation at each location. These depth estimates were then compared to RIM2D simulation outputs at corresponding grid points. The results, presented in Fig. , show that while RIM2D tended to slightly underestimate water depths in most cases, the differences were generally small and within an acceptable range for uncalibrated urban flood simulations. This indicates a strong baseline performance of the model despite the lack of calibration.

It is important to note that the current simulation setup did not incorporate detailed data on the city’s drainage network, underground infrastructure, or elements such as underpasses and bridges, which can significantly influence local flood dynamics. The one bigger overestimation of inundation depth by RIM2D of about 40 cm shown in Fig.  points towards a neglected hydraulic feature. Such detailed data were not available for this study but are typically accessible to municipal authorities. Their inclusion in future modeling efforts is expected to further enhance the accuracy of simulations, particularly in areas where hydraulic connectivity and localized flow pathways are governed by sub-surface or built infrastructure.

Despite these limitations, the validation exercise indicates that RIM2D is capable of reproducing both the spatial extent and relative depth of urban flooding with a high degree of reliability, even without calibration. The close agreement between simulated and observed outcomes – both in terms of flooded areas and estimated water depths – demonstrates the model’s potential as a practical and effective tool for real-time urban flood forecasting. It also reinforces the viability of VGI-based validation approaches, especially in urban contexts where traditional hydrometric networks are sparse or absent.

Taken together, these results suggest that RIM2D, when run with high-performance computing capabilities such as multi-GPU acceleration, can support impact-based flood forecasting and early warning in large and complex urban environments like Berlin. The findings underscore the importance of integrating HPC-enabled hydrodynamic modeling with non-traditional data sources to improve situational awareness and emergency response in the face of increasingly frequent and intense pluvial flood events.

We now turn to the simulation of the HQ100 event using RIM2D and its comparison with the city’s official flood hazard maps. Figure  presents the comparison of RIM2D-simulated flood extents against the official maps at 2, 5, and 10 m resolutions across the Obersee, Flughafensee, and Niederschönhausen Ost catchments. Evaluation metrics include the Critical Success Index (CSI), Hit Rate (HR), False Alarm Ratio (1-FA), Error Bias (EB), and Bias Percentage Indicator (BPI). Complementarily, Fig.  presents the comparison of water depth predictions using Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and Bias, offering insight into the accuracy of flow dynamics reproduced by RIM2D.

Overall, RIM2D demonstrates strong agreement with the official maps, achieving high scores across all performance metrics for both flood extent and depth. A clear resolution-dependent trend is observed, with finer-resolution inputs yielding improved predictive skills in comparison to the city hazard maps, although the resolution-based improvements show to be minor in almost all cases. Notably, RIM2D achieved this level of alignment without any site-specific calibration, whereas the official maps have undergone extensive plausibility assessments by the state administration which involved a detailed qualitative and quantitative review of simulated flow paths and ponding areas to detect implausible hydraulic behavior. Moreover as mentioned before, the current RIM2D simulation setup did not account for detailed information on the city’s drainage system (i.e. spatially distributed sewer capacities in RIM2D), underground infrastructure (car parks, tunnels, etc.), or features like underpasses and bridges – factors that can strongly influence local flood behavior. While this data was unavailable for the present study, it is generally accessible through municipal sources and incorporating such details in future modeling efforts would likely improve simulation accuracy, especially in areas where subsurface or built structures control flow dynamics.

What sets RIM2D apart however is not only its strong agreement with these rigorously verified maps but also its unparalleled computational efficiency. Unlike the states modeling framework, which – due to computational constraints – cannot generate a statewide flood hazard map in a single simulation, RIM2D is capable of simulating high-resolution flood extents over the entire urban domain in a matter of minutes, as seen in Fig. . This opens the door to ensemble-based flood hazard assessments using large numbers of synthetic rainfall scenarios generated via stochastic weather generators. Such probabilistic mapping provides a more robust basis for flood risk planning than traditional deterministic approaches . Another key advantage of using RIM2D is the ability to implement a statewide flood model. This allows the model to capture inundation that extends beyond the boundaries of small catchments, which are typically the focus of official flood hazard maps in Berlin. Floodwaters can move across these hydrological boundaries in both directions – either entering a catchment from adjacent areas or spreading out from within the catchment into neighboring regions. This effect is particularly significant in flat landscapes, where minimal elevation differences allow even shallow floodwaters to overflow natural or man-made catchment divides. Such cross-boundary flow highlights the value of running simulations at the state scale, as it provides a more comprehensive understanding of flood dynamics that smaller-scale models might miss.

In this context, RIM2D presents a valuable tool not only for real-time flood forecasting but also strategic urban resilience planning, enabling authorities to efficiently assess a wide range of future flood scenarios.

We now turn our attention to the simulation of the June 2017 pluvial flood event in Berlin. The results are presented in Fig. , which includes maps of (a) maximum water depth, (b) maximum flow velocity, (c) the time at which each grid cell reaches its maximum water depth, and (d) the number of affected individuals within the domain. These outputs are based on the simulation with a spatial resolution of 5 m. The figure demonstrates RIM2d’s capability to spatially represent impact-based outcomes of the 2017 flood. From Fig. a, it can be seen that most areas of the city experienced water depths between 5 and 20 cm, with localized hot-spots reaching depths of approximately 50 cm. These values are consistent with photographic and video documentation of the event. Regarding flow velocities (Fig. b), generally low velocities are observed throughout the domain – a typical characteristic of pluvial flooding in relatively flat urban areas like Berlin. Figure c presents the time of which cell experiences max water depth [s] during the simulation. This indicator can be vital for providing insights into how quickly different areas experience peak flood severity, which is essential for evaluating potential damage to critical infrastructure , estimating exposure durations, and planning targeted mitigation strategies. Lastly, Fig. d shows the affected people during the flood. Individuals are considered “affected” if they reside in areas impacted by flooding – essentially, those who would “get wet feet.” This definition is consistent with established literature in flood risk assessment, where affected population is defined as those living in cells with positive water depth in a given flood scenario (e.g., ). The potential impact is estimated using population density data [persons m⁻²] assigned to each grid cell within the simulation domain. Vulnerability is defined by the level of impact, which is determined by the maximum water depth [m] in each cell. To reduce uncertainty associated with very shallow flooding, a threshold of 10 cm is applied: if the maximum water depth in a cell is below 0.1 m, the population in that cell is not considered affected; if the depth exceeds 0.1 m, all individuals in the cell are assumed to be affected. For this analysis, we use the 2020 WorldPop population density dataset for Germany , with a spatial resolution of 100 m. The RIM2D simulations max water depths are aggregated to the WorldPop grid resolutions and overlayed with the data. A WorldPop cell is classified as affected if the maximum simulated water depth within it exceeds 0.1 m (“wet feet” threshold). The entire population assigned to that cell by WorldPop is then counted as affected. Values below 1 person may arise from the WorldPop data because many cells, especially sparsely populated areas such as parks, industrial zones, or outskirts, contain only a fraction of one person according to the WorldPop disaggregated data.

While looking at the figure, a higher concentration of affected individuals (indicated in dark green) can be seen in the city center compared to the outskirts, primarily due to the higher population density in central Berlin. It is also worth noting that RIM2D simulation outputs enable the assessment of additional impact dimensions. For example, RIM2D allows users to generate human instability maps and identify areas where vehicles may begin to float, following the method proposed by , based on the simulation outputs. These analyses are particularly useful in flash flood or fluvial scenarios with high flow velocities, where risks to human safety and vehicle stability are more pronounced. However, in the case of Berlin, due to the characteristics of the pluvial flood and the resulting low water velocities indicators such as human instability and vehicle floatation were not computed, as the associated risks were considered negligible under the observed flow conditions.

As with all model simulations, inherent uncertainties are expected in the results. The uncalibrated hydrodynamic model presented in this study inevitably contributes to the uncertainties already present in meteorological forecasts. Nevertheless, hydrodynamic modeling typically introduces the least uncertainty compared to other sources . This uncertainty could be further reduced by avoiding ad hoc model configurations and uncalibrated simulations – as done in this feasibility study – and instead pursuing a more robust implementation. Such an approach would involve calibration and/or validation using historical flood events or supplementary data sources, such as volunteered geographic information (VGI) . With the expertise and collaboration of the states relevant authorities, implementing a more refined model would be entirely feasible. Results are subject to typical uncertainties in parameters and model inputs such as Manning roughness (friction), infiltration rates, sewer drainage capacity, DEM accuracy, and rainfall input, which usually alter flooded area by ±10 %–20 % and water depths by ±15 %–25 % for realistic parameter ranges, as shown in sensitivity studies with RIM2D and other comparable high-resolution urban models . As an example for the case of Berlin, to probe sensitivity to sewer capacity, we ran two additional simulations with sewer capacities reduced by 50 % and 100 % (assuming partial or full blockage or saturation from prior events). This resulted in an estimated increases in flooded areas by approximately 8 % and 13 % and average water levels in the domain by approximately 17 % and 23 % respectively compared to the base case, highlighting the importance of accurate sewer parameterization in urban pluvial modeling. Given the demonstrated runtimes of RIM2D, operational ensemble forecasting exploring these uncertainties is achievable (e.g., hundreds or thousands of Monte Carlo simulations can be completed in hours on multi-GPU setups, as demonstrated in ). A comprehensive sensitivity study or calibrated risk assessment for Berlin is, however, beyond the scope of this paper, whose aim is to demonstrate that state-scale, high-resolution, real-time pluvial flood forecasting with a physically based model is now technically feasible with multi-GPU processing. For operational deployment of RIM2D, it is advisable to incorporate uncertainty maps derived from ensembles of meteorological forecasts, something which is made possible by RIM2Ds efficient computation runtimes. This strategy enables clearer visualization of the uncertainties inherent in the input data. Given RIM2D's computational efficiency, these forecast ensembles can be rapidly translated into inundation maps that explicitly represent flood forecast uncertainty . Such maps not only illustrate the range of possible outcomes but also enhance decision-making under uncertainty by supporting risk-informed planning and emergency response . Furthermore, they offer a valuable tool for communicating risk to non-technical stakeholders, helping to improve public understanding and stakeholder engagement.